In this last blog post, I would like to highlight the most significant factor that contributes to pollution in the K-pop industry. Consumerism has always been the largest contributor to environmental pollution in many industries and K-pop is no different. To start this off, I would like to briefly introduce how the industry on its own can contribute to environmental pollution through fans as consumers.
Firstly, fans can get a chance to chat with their idols via video calls through winning fan sign events. In order to be one of the lucky winners, fans would need to spend an amount on albums so that they can get higher chances of winning. These albums would sometimes be disposed of after the event and the manner in which they are disposed of can be pollutive in nature as it contributes to the landfill. Additionally, these albums are not made of biodegradable materials, most of them are composed of glossy paper which may not be entirely biodegradable also the compact discs (CDs) which come together with the album are made of polycarbonate plastic. Polycarbonate plastics can threaten not only the environment but also human health concerns. The release of the additives found in these plastic products can be toxic to the environment, especially if these products are not disposed of properly (Hahladakis et al., 2018). At the same time, these K-pop albums then contain a lot of these non-biodegradable elements and the neglected state of how they are disposed of once done can lead to the release of the harmful toxins residing in the plastics. As these K-pop fans continue consuming these products at an alarming rate given the continued rise of the industry, I fear that there would continue to be more pollution issues within and beyond the industry.
Reference:
Hahladakis, J. N., Velis, C. A., Weber, R., Iacovidou, E. and Purnell, P. (2018). An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 344. pp. 179-199. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.10.014
K-pop also has a lot of influence in the skincare and cosmetics industry. As a result, it is clear that the Korean cosmetics market is expanding quickly as a result of rising consumer interest and correspondingly rising manufacturing costs (Park, 2015). As the cosmetics industry increases, it is also noted that there has been an increase in harmful ingredients that can be found in these products. These ingredients not only pose a threat to the consumer in the long run but also to the environment. This can be seen in the case of microbeads from cosmetic products. While these microbeads found in cosmetic products do not necessarily contribute a high percentage to microplastic pollution, they are still significant enough to threaten the environment. This is because when these microplastics are being discharged into the water bodies, they are then partially blocked by the wastewater treatment plants (Guerranti, et al., 2019). As such, it might enter waters that have been deemed safe for human consumption.
In addition to microbeads, hazardous metals are also present in small concentrations in cosmetics, with Co, Cr, and Ni accounting for the majority of allergenic metals and particularly prevalent in coloured eye shadows (Bocca et al., 2014). Though the highest concentrations can be seen in some cases in eye shadows imported from China. Nevertheless, it is obvious that there are still pollutants in our makeup. Consumers unwittingly put these pollutants on their eyes, faces, and lips since they are not labelled on items that contain them. Although the amounts applied to the skin or lips each day may be minimal, regulatory and standard-setting organizations sometimes overlook the cumulative effects of exposure from other sources, such as cosmetics (Bocca et al., 2014). Numerous cosmetic goods are being used in combination, which might result in a distinct exposure pattern and health consequences due to the unbounded and unknowable quantity of cosmetic items on the market. As a result, there is a need to make cosmetics safety essential in order to avoid unwanted exposure to such pollutants.
References:
Bocca, B., Pino, A., Alimonti, A. and Forte, G. (2014). Toxic metals contained in cosmetics: A status report. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 68(3). pp. 447-467. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2014.02.003
Guerranti, C., Martellini, T., Perra, G., Scopetani, C. and Cincinelli, A. (2019). Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology. 68. pp. 75-79. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2019.03.007
Park, Y. S. (2015). Does the Rise of the Korean Wave Lead to Cosmetics Export? Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business. 2(4). pp. 13-20. doi: 10.13106/jafeb.2015.vol2.no4.13.
One of the key channels for K-pop’s international diffusion is its music videos, which frequently take on the form of parables about the consumption of fashion. Fans would follow their idols and observe their style, they also then try to emulate and consume what they see their idols wearing (Kim, 2019). Hence, by wanting to emulate the same fashion, they would then turn to fast fashion as a means to access such style.
Shein is one of the current fastest-growing fast fashion brand, its cheap prices enable consumers to make impulsive purchases and hauls (Rajvanshi, 2023). As it expands, it shows how the industry has an effect on the environment, as seen by the use of chemicals in material creation and the emissions of carbon during production, distribution, and consumption (Niinimaki et al., 2020). Environmental injustice is evident in developing nations, who generate a substantial portion of the materials and clothing while simultaneously bearing the cost of the industrialized nations’ use of these items. However, because of globalization and the ambiguity surrounding the procurement and processing of raw materials, it is also challenging to accurately quantify the environmental effects of the clothes production process.
According to Niinimaki et al. (2020), textiles actually produce the most greenhouse emissions per unit of materials. The high energy consumption in the fashion business contributes to its large carbon footprint, which is determined by the energy source. Manufacturing and consumer usage of textiles are both connected with high energy requirements and CO2 emissions. However, the initial extraction of fibres uses the most energy and produces the most CO2 throughout the garment life cycle, especially for synthetic fibres like acrylic, which come from fossil fuels (Niinimmaki et al., 2020). Overall, the fashion industry generates a lot of carbon emissions which can be seen in its global supply chain, from production and manufacturing to consumption. Hence, fans need to be mindful of the manner they are consuming the K-pop industry, as the large influence of this pop culture can create a lot of environmental pollution.
Niinimaki, K., Peters, G., Dahlbo, H., Perry, P., Rissanen, T. and Gwilt, A. (2020). The environmental price of fast fashion. Nature Reviews Eart & Environment. 1, pp. 189-200.
Ravanshi, A. (2023). Shein is the World’s Most Popular Fashion Brand – at a Huge Cost to Us All. Time. Retrieved from: https://time.com/6247732/shein-climate-change-labor-fashion/ (Accessed: 27 March 2023)
In my previous post, I discussed how live concerts may contribute to pollution by emitting C02 emissions. I also posit that online concerts held during Covid times are much less pollutive than live ones. Online concerts refer to concerts being held without an audience, in which fans would livestream them instead of being physically there. Electronic devices would be used by the fans to attend online performances that last approximately 2-3 hours, consuming a lot of power (Fan et al., 2021).
According to a study by Fan et al. (2021), it was found that online music event produces up to 93902.4 kg of C02, which is more than the 12407.7 kg of carbon produced by a live music event. This finding is tempered by the fact that web music events attract many more viewers than live music events. The study also divides the participants based on the overall carbon footprint of web and live music events for a more accurate comparison of the data. Lastly, it was found that online music events emit 0.206 kg of CO2 per attendee, which is less than the 0.994 kg of CO2 emitted by a live music event. However, the point still stands that online concerts may not seem to be less pollutive than live ones. It has to be acknowledged that online concerts have higher audience traffic than live ones as it decreases the barriers for these fans to attend them. Nonetheless, it was also noted that Guerreschi (2021), also concluded that while online concerts do not seem as sustainable and less pollutive, it is still fundamental to encourage such music events because overall, it can provide a shift to using the online platform as a potential for such events. This would thus render the construction and maintenance of music venus to be redundant, and can hence decrease overall emissions generated from the concert industry.
References:
Fan, Y., Ouyang, S., Zhang, B. and Wang, W. (2021). The Sustainability of Online Concert and Live Concerts. E3S Web of Conferences 308, 01017. doi: https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202130801017
Guerreschi, A. (2021). Green Music: the music industry towards a sustainable world. Musica Stampata. Retrieved from: https://www.musica-stampata.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Asia-Guerreschi_Green-Music_English.pdf (Accessed: 25 March 2023)
As a follow-up to the discussion of the pollution caused by K-pop concerts, I would like to add that these events not only produce noise and light pollution but also what appears to be significant amounts of pollution from the waste on the site and the energy required to power the area. This is a result of the use of electricity for the performers, crew, and audience members’ transportation as well as for lighting and sound equipment. The subsequent high energy use would increase air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions that contribute to air pollution can be produced when lighting and sound systems are powered by generators and other machinery. This is valid for outdoor concerts, where electricity is frequently provided by diesel generators. Also, a lot of waste is produced, including glowsticks, confetti, and empty plastic cups, all of which, if not recycled, can contribute to environmental degradation.
The carbon footprint of music venues, such as a concert, can be calculated and divided into three categories, according to Tucker and Edesess (2023): direct emissions that the venue is in control of (emissions from energy fuel burned on-site), indirect emissions (electricity imported to power the site), and all other indirect emissions (transportation of crew, performers and attendees). While indirect emissions make up the greatest portion of the total emissions produced by hosting a concert, its issue is frequently overlooked by organisers. As such, it is crucial to recognise them and minimise them as much as possible.
Tucker and Edesess (2023) investigated this and calculated it through the case study of Future Yard, a UK-based organisation that connects the city’s cultural landscape to its environment. According to their data, audience travel looks to be a substantial producer of carbon emissions for music and cultural venues.
Audience travel being a substantial producer of carbon emissions for concerts can also be further supported by Connolly et al. (2016). It was mentioned in their journal article that live concert has had substantial environmental consequences, with it being estimated that the cumulative greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the UK’s music industry alone have about 540,000 tonnes of CO2 equivalent, of which 43% is generated by audience travel (Bottrill et al, 2010; as cited in Connolly et al., 2016). Here, it is evident then that the largest generator of GHG can be attributed to the concert attendees, in particular the travel done to the venues.
I have also highlighted in my previous blog that tourism from the influence of K-pop can also generate a large amount of pollution from greenhouse gas emissions mostly due to the transportation used. Here, I would like to also link these two issues in which audience travel can be a component of tourism. As a result, the GHG emissions would be designed to be more than what was evaluated because it would take into consideration longer and ‘heavier’ modes of transportation such as the use of aircraft or rail transportation as opposed to short-distance vehicle travel. This makes me wonder if an online concert would be less polluting than a live one. The shift to moving concerts online has been done before during the pandemic. In my next blog, I’ll analyse if online concerts are more useful and environmentally friendly than live events.
References:
Connolly, M., Dupras, J. and Seguin, C. (2016). ‘An economic perspective on rock concerts and climate change: Should carbon offsets compensating emissions be included in the ticket price?’, Journal of Cultural Economics. 40(1), pp. 101-126.
Tucker, S. and Edessess, A. (2023). A Carbon Neutral Music Venue: A Sustainable Urban Development. In: Proceedings of PLEA. (PLEA SANTIAGO 2022 Will Cities Survive?, Santiago, Chile). Retrieved from: https://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/id/eprint/18231/ (Accessed: 21 March 2023)
K- pop’s success has resulted in an increase in tourism to South Korea, with fans travelling to the nation to attend concerts and experience K-pop culture. As a result, they contribute to the growth in tourism as well as the pollution created by it.
According to Azam et al. (2018)’s literature review, tourism and pollution can exist together. Their paper focuses on the CO2 emissions from the tourism industry. Notwithstanding the unseen pollution effects of tourism, CO2 emissions are related to the effects of tourism development. The high reliance on energy as a fuel source for transportation is another indication of this. Through domestic energy use, the relationship between tourism development and CO2 emissions is illustrated in the context of economic and transportation operations (Beladi et al., 2009; as cited in Azam et al., 2018). Katircioglu (2014) also mentioned that environmental pollution led by tourism is channelled through the consumption of fuel needed to support the industry.
Considering transportation is such an important aspect of the tourism industry, the quantity of CO2 emissions contributed to the area’s air pollution will then be higher as tourism in the area grows. Furthermore, if the area already has a significant amount of pollution, the additional pollution from tourism can exacerbate environmental degradation. This can be illustrated by doing pollutant budgeting, as it helps to assess the environmental pollution of an area. Whereby if the influx is greater than the outflow of the pollutant, then there will be a net accumulation of the pollutant in the environment. Hence, for example, given that the control volume of the area is a city in Seoul, South Korea, and the pollutant influx consists of the CO2 emissions from the tourism industry on top of the emissions from energy production, vehicle exhaust etc. but if the outflow is lower or insufficient to reduce the pollutant, as such, the CO2 pollutant will then accumulate in the environment. Therefore, tourism growth influenced by K-pop can create environmental pollution and degradation through the emission of CO2.
References:
Azam, M., Alam, M. M. and Hafeez, M. H. (2018). ‘Effect of tourism on environmental pollution: Further evidence from Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand’. Journal of Cleaner Production. 190, pp. 330-338.
Katircioglu, S. T. (2014). ‘International tourism, energy consumption, and environmental pollution: The case of Turkey’. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 36, pp. 180-187.
Figure.1 Birthday ad for idols in Times Square Source: (Herman, 2017)
There are also other light pollution sources in K-pop apart from the concerts held in the open. This is demonstrated by the utilisation of billboards and digital commercials showcasing K-pop groups. These added to and contributed to the city lights at night, as well as contributing to a greater sky glow than before. Figure 1. depicts a billboard birthday ad of an idol in Times Square, which contributes to the existing sky glow in the area.
The lighting on these digital signs, on the other hand, is known as artificial lighting, more specifically Artificial Lighting at Night (ALAN), which has been connected to a variety of additional health problems (Ngarambe and Kim, 2018). Skyglow caused by artificial lighting was reported to obstruct astronomical activities and wildlife behaviours, in addition to creating health problems. The “glow” effect that can be seen overcrowded places is also known as sky glow. Sky glow refers to the total amount of light that has been reflected off the object it has lighted and that has also escaped into the sky, being dispersed (redirected) back towards the earth by the atmosphere, makes up this phenomenon (Rajkhowa, 2014).
According to Ngarambe and Kim (2018), while South Korea has imposed and limited the use of artificial lighting to reduce light pollution, there has been a significant rise in digital signboards and billboards in cities, which has caused other forms of light pollution including light trespass and light clutter. Light trespass happens when undesirable light penetrates one’s property, such as by beaming through a neighbour’s fence. Whereas light clutter is the grouping of lights in an excessive way. This may cause confusion, divert attention away from hazards, and even cause accidents (Rajkhowa, 2014). Such external illumination in non-commercial locations has hampered the livelihoods of local residents and certain pedestrians, consequently lowering the quality of life.
Furthermore, there also exists energy impacts from the use of digital signs and billboards. This is due to the fact that these signs need power in order to be seen better at night, and as a result, a lot of energy is being consumed to give a steady supply of energy so that the ad may be displayed both day and night (Scenic Nevada, 2022).
In conclusion, the K-pop industry also contributes to light pollution through the usage of billboards and digital displays. While billboards have been used since urbanisation, the new displays from K-pop have provided another form of pollution.
Ngarambe, J. and Kim, G. (2018). ‘Sustainable Lighting Policies: The Contribution of Advertisement and Decorative Lighting to Local Light Pollution in Seoul, South Korea’, Sustainability. 10(4), pp. 1-11. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.3390/su10041007 (Accessed:11 February 2023)
Rajkhowa, R. (2014). ‘Light Pollution and Impact of Light Pollution’. International Journal of Science and Research. 3(10), pp. 861-867.
Figure. 1 K-pop lightsticks being used in K-pop concerts (Source: Author’s own)
As previously stated, K-pop concerts (particularly those staged outside) can cause a variety of environmental problems. Aside from the overt noise pollution issues caused by outdoor performances, there are also concerns about light pollution. The number of lights used for outdoor concerts is an environmental problem because their size and intensity can damage the local wildlife. K-pop fans in attendance would also use lightsticks to brighten the area, and this additional light source provides more unwanted artificial light that can harm all of the flora and biodiversity in the area.
The increase of people living alongside and sometimes within natural environments exposes vulnerable ecosystems to artificial night lighting. Thus, even a modest amount of artificial light disrupts this delicate balance, altering the colour of the sky and overpowering the starlight (Rajkhowa, 2014). Additionally, according to the International Dark-Sky Association, “any unfavourable effect of artificial light, including sky glow, glare, light trespass, light clutter, diminished vision at night, and energy waste” is considered light pollution (Rajkhowa, 2014:861). Among the problems caused by light pollution include ecosystem disruption and detrimental health effects. Some experts even believe that increased light pollution could disrupt food webs and harm entire ecosystems. This is due to how light pollution can cause the celestial compass of many nocturnal species to be obstructed, completely destroying their navigation capabilities (Rajkhowa, 2014). Hence, there is thus a need to decrease light pollution through the efficient use of lighting, and lights used in K-pop concerts are unfortunately not improving the situation.
Furthermore, while light pollution is defined as the introduction of artificial light into the environment by humans, either directly or indirectly, there is also “avoidable light pollution,” which refers to the light flow of artificial light sources that are highly intense and frequently unnecessary (Rajkhowa, 2014:861). An example of such “avoidable light pollution” can be seen in K-pop concerts/music festivals which were held outdoors, whereby the intense amount of lighting used to illuminate the area causes a glare in the area. However, this may not be the case with indoor concerts because the light is contained rather than being released into the environment, which can have a negative impact on the ecology, particularly nocturnal species. Therefore, light pollution from K-pop concerts is also a cause of concern that should be looked at.
References:
Rajkhowa, R. (2014). ‘Light Pollution and Impact of Light Pollution’. International Journal of Science and Research. 3(10), pp. 861-867.
Continuing from part 1, it was indicated that K-pop concerts, particularly those that are performed outside, can cause a noise pollution problem. Since the perception of sound as noise varies depending on the individual exposed, the notion of environmental noise is highly nebulous (Murphy and King, 2022). The definition of noise pollution is thus focused on how noise as a pollutant that can be controlled. Although the basic term still refers to any unwelcome sound that might negatively disrupt everyday life, the definition of environmental noise refers to any unwanted sound from anthropogenic activities that can be viewed as dangerous and detrimental to human health and quality of life (Murphy et al., 2009; as cited in Murphy and King, 2022). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the main causes of environmental noise exposure are anthropogenic activities such as (road, rail, aviation traffic, and/or building sites). Noise exposure can also arise as a result of recreational activities such as listening to and participating in loud audio content, such as attending K-pop concerts.
Regardless, the most pressing issue is how humans perceive excessive noise and how it affects their daily lives. According to Murphy and King (2022), this is because the human impact of ambient noise is frequently overlooked in technicalities such as noise indicators, decibel scales, modelling, and measurement methodologies. Although noise pollution has been around for a long time, a high number of people are now exposed since more people live in cities now than in the past (Murphy and King, 2022).
Figure 1. Diverse effects of noise pollution
Source: Slabbekoorn, 2019
According to Figure. 1, the possible consequences of noise pollution on humans and animals in air and water vary depending on the sound level, duration, spectrum, temporal pattern, and distance from the source. The red section indicates what would happen if exposed to the most extreme sound close to the source, demonstrating how noise pollution can produce harmful health effects. While the yellow and light orange sections appear to be less harmful, it has been demonstrated to produce certain behavioural alterations (Slabbekoorn, 2019).
Furthermore, with reference to Chambers, 2005, while noise can be regarded as any undesired sound, noise characteristics can be thought of as sound characteristics. Sound waves cause considerable changes in the density of the air as they travel through it, resulting in pressure variations (Chambers, 2005). According to Chambers (2005), sound pressure, the incremental variation in pressure above and below atmospheric pressure, is a measure that lends itself to quantification. The decibel (dB) is a dimensionless measure that is used to express the intensity of sound pressure (SPL or Lp). There are many other factors, both inherent to the noise and its surroundings, that influence whether individuals find it bothersome. Frequency content or bandwidth, duration, presence of pure tones or transients, intermittency, time of day, and location are the considerations (or activity).
Figure 2. Permissible Steady Level Noise Exposure
(Source: Wang and Pereira (1979); as cited in Chambers, 2005)
These characteristics, however, are subjective in characterising noise pollution. This is because the noise-level scale has an influence on humans at both its high and low ends. For example, at 30 dBA, noise is not perceived as a nuisance, yet at 120 dBA, it can cause physical discomfort to its listeners (Chambers, 2005). The values between the noise level are where people’s susceptibility to it varies.
With reference to Chambers (2005), noise effects include both physiological and nuisance types. In terms of the physiological type, evidence suggests that prolonged and intense noise exposure might cause lasting damage and hearing loss (Chambers, 2005). Noise-induced sleep deprivation impacts people’s moods by increasing stress and irritation. Noise of the irritation variety can interfere with speech comprehension and auditory signal perception, which can impair one’s ability to carry out difficult tasks (Chambers, 2005). As a result, noise lowers our ability to enjoy our surroundings and lowers our quality of life.
In conclusion, with so many K-pop concerts and music festivals happening all over the world, noise and sound are unavoidable. The music that was created for the fans’ enjoyment might become an annoyance and nuisance to others, and its duration and intensity can result in noise pollution.
References:
Chambers, J. P. (2005). Noise Pollution. In L. K. Wang, N. C. Pereira and Y.T, Hung (eds). Advanced Air and Noise Pollution Control. Springer Link. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-59259-779-6_12 pp. 441-452.
Murphy, E. and King, E. A. (2022). Environmental Noise Pollution: Noise Mapping, Public Health and Policy. 2nd Edition. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820100-8.00001-4 (Accessed: 28 January 2023)
Slabbekoorn, H. (2019). “Quick Guide Noise Pollution”. Current Biology, R942–R995 29, Elsevier Ltd. Retrieved from: https://www.cell.com/current-biology/pdf/S0960-9822(19)30863-2.pdf (Accessed: 28 January 2023)
World Health Organisation. (n.d.). Guidance on environmental noise. Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/tools/compendium-on-health-and-environment/environmental-noise (Accessed: 28 January 2023)
Concerts are an essential element of the K-pop industry since they contribute to the globalisation of K-pop. They can help to expand an idol group within and beyond South Korea (Oh, 2013). K-pop concerts are then frequently held around the world via concert tours, and they can often be conducted indoors or outdoors. Of course, the site will be determined by the musical organisers. As concerts consist of loud music being played in a public space, the issue of noise pollution will then arise. Noise pollution is often not a concern with indoor performances because the noise is limited within the location. However, even if the sound is contained, the volume of it might be considered noise pollution.
On the other hand, if the performances are held outside, there appears to be a problem with noise pollution. An example can be seen in the Seoul Park Music Festival (as seen in the images below) which features K-pop idols, and these are held outdoors every year (BEPCA, N.d.).
Acoustic Park Music Festival in Seoul Olympic ParkSeoul Park Music Festival 2022 in Seoul Olympic Park
Source: BEPCA, n.d.
Environmental noise pollution appears to also be a form of air pollution and, as such, is detrimental to one’s health and well-being. Noise pollution can be defined as any undesired or distracting sound that has an impact on the health and well-being of other living beings (Mohamed, 2021). Varying sounds in the environment can reflect different numerical decibels since sound can be measured in decibels. A thunderclap, for example, has 120 decibels, and sounds with 85 decibels or above can impact and hurt an individual’s ears. Loud concerts such as the Seoul Park Music Festival can reach up to 110 to 120 decibels (Mohamed, 2021). As a result, when K-pop concerts are held all year round, the continuous loudness might have an impact on one’s health and well-being because its loudness goes beyond the stated decibel level that a human can tolerate, and this can thus impact their health.
References:
BEPCA. (n.d.). Seoul Park Music Festival. Retrieved from: http://pmf.co.kr/ (Accessed: 24 January 2023)
Mohamed, M. A. (2021). A Study of Noise pollution and Impact on Human Health. International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Current Research. 9(Nov/Dec). Pp. 610-614. Retrieved from: http://ijmcr.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Paper3610-614.pdf (Accessed: 24 January 2023)
