February 2022 – Sullied South

✿ Indonesia (II)

Hi everyone! In today’s second post of the week, I will be covering 5 academic articles.

Three of the articles I found focus on air pollution caused by traffic congestion and wildfires. In Hayasaka et al. (2014) found that peat fires contribute to most of the photochemical smog in Indonesia. These fires produce various pollutants such as particulate matter (PM10), SO2, CO, O3, and NO2. There also a bunch of other pollutants mentioned in their paper, as seen in the screenshots below:

These fires are necessary, to make way for land used for oil palm plantations. These plantations are in high demand due to the demand for biofuels in the country. In McCarthy & Zen’s (2009) paper, I’ve learnt that Indonesia has attempted to regulate the expansion of this agro-industry to fight the pollution that it causes. These attempts include new governance approaches such as the introduction of ISO (International Organization for Standardizations) 14001 series of environmental management systems, as well as the RSPO (Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil) certification system. However, they argue that they have been largely unsuccessful, because industries do not conduct proper EIAs (Environmental Impact Assessments). Local agencies also have collusive forms of interaction with polluting industries. Corruption is not an issue exclusive to Indonesia. Many other countries in the Global South suffer from this too.

Apart from wildfires, air pollution in Indonesia is also caused by vehicles on congested roads. Kashima et al. (2010) attempted to find a two-way relationship between indoor and outdoor air pollution. As mentioned in a previous blogpost on Haiti and Fiji, indoor air pollution from indoor cooking is a phenomenon experienced in many countries in the Global South. As such, Kashima et al.’s findings proved that this was the case in Indonesia as well, and that indoor air pollution exacerbated the health effects residents faced as a result of outdoor air pollution. Put simply, outdoor air pollution simultaneously happens at the same time with indoor air pollution, leading to more respiratory issues for people.

The other two papers I found focused on pollution caused by plastics. In Firdaus et al.’s (2020) paper, I learnt about the density separation method. Through this method, Firdaus et al. investigated the presence and characteristics of microplastics in the sediment of an estuary and coast in Surabaya. They used a stereomicroscope to identify the sizes, components and colors of these microplastics. It is a relatively science-y paper, so I suggest you check it out to learn more! Meanwhile, Tyllianakis & Ferrini’s (2021) focused on studying the willingness of citizens to pay to reduce marine plastic pollution in Indonesia. They found that people are willing to pay only 15 euros, or as much as 2% of their average monthly salaries, to reduce marine plastic pollution per year. This is enlightening because it shows that citizens are willing to go out of their way to protect their environment. With research findings like these present, it is up to governments to pick up the challenge and design pollution mitigation and coping strategies for its citizens. I wonder if locals in other countries in the Global South are this committed too.

Up next, Madagascar. See you in the next one! ✿

References

Firdaus, M., Trihadiningrum, Y. & Lestari, P. (2020) Microplastic Pollution in the Sediment of Jagir Estuary, Surabaya City, Indonesia. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 150, 1-9. Available from: https://www-sciencedirect-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/science/article/pii/S0025326X19309464?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 25 February 2022].

Hayasaka, H., Noguchi, I., Putra, E. I., Yulianti, N. & Vadrevu, K. (2014) Peat-Fire-Related Air Pollution in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Environmental Pollution. 195, 257-266. Available from: https://www-sciencedirect-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/science/article/pii/S0269749114002784 [Accessed: 25 February 2022].

Kashima, S., Yorifuji, T., Tsuda, T., Ibrahim, J. & Doi, H. (2010) Effects of Traffic-Related Outdoor Air Pollution on Respiratory Illness and Mortality in Children, Taking Into Account Indoor air Pollution in Indonesia. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine. 52(3), 340-345. Available from: https://oce-ovid-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/article/00043764-201003000-00015/HTML [Accessed: 25 February 2022].

McCarthy, J. & Zen, Z. (2009) Regulating the Oil Palm Boom: Assessing the Effectiveness of Environmental Governance Approaches to Agro-Industrial Pollution in Indonesia. Law & Policy. 32(1), 153-179. Available from: https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-9930.2009.00312.x [Accessed: 25 February 2022].

Tyllianakis, E. & Ferrini, S. (2021) Personal Attitudes and Beliefs and Willingness to Pay to Reduce Marine Plastic Pollution in Indonesia. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 173, 1-11. Available from: https://www-sciencedirect-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/science/article/pii/S0025326X21011541?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 25 February 2022].

✿ Indonesia (I)

Hi everyone! To start off the week, let’s take a look at Indonesia’s air quality from IQAir. Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia. Hence, I figured that it would be wise to zoom out and capture air quality levels throughout its many islands.

As you can see in the image, air quality levels are in the moderate range. But does having a lower AQI value as compared to other countries discussed in this blog so far indicate that air pollution is not a problem for the country? Unfortunately, not.

As Singaporeans, we know better than anyone about the severe forest fires that happen in Indonesia. We will complain about the haze it brings, and feel angry and hopeless. But have we spared a thought to think about the people who actually live in these areas? UNICEF explains that air pollution affects babies even before they are born. Imagine being born into a polluted city, and never knowing what a non-polluted world is like!

Indonesians often lament about the smog that hovers its capital city Jakarta. I have been to the city around 5 years ago, and I agree that the air in Jakarta is significantly different from Singapore. The air has a distinct smell, and if I happened to be exerting myself physically on a particular day, I would feel easily breathless and uncomfortable. There is just too much smoke coming out from the vehicles on the roads! Imagine having to breathe in air like that on a daily basis! The BBC, ABC and CNN have reported on the government’s negligence in managing air pollution in the city. In 2019, residents filed a lawsuit against the government for not monitoring the capital’s air conditions. The smog that persists in the city is caused by heavy traffic and coal-fired power plants that are not fitted with filters. These are issues that the government has not tackled up until today. A more pressing issue that the government is handling pretty badly is the issue of land submergence. To read more on how the government aims to deal with sea-level rise and city flooding by shifting its capital to another region, you can click the BBC hyperlink above, or in the reference section. In short, the government is mainly to blame for air pollution, and this case study proves that society can make a change.

If Indonesia successfully cleans up its air, as claimed by Greenstone & Fan (2019), Indonesians can live as much as 8 months or 2.5 years longer. But what have researchers said about Indonesia’s pollution problem? I will cover 5 research papers in the next post.

See you in the next one! ✿

References

BBC (2021) Indonesia President Found Negligent Over Jakarta’s FIlty Air. 16 September. Available from: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-58554331 [Accessed: 21 February 2022].

Greenstone, M. & Fan, Q. C. (2019) Indonesia’s Worsening Air Quality and its Impact on Life Expectancy. Air Quality Life Index. Available from: https://aqli.epic.uchicago.edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Indonesia-Report.pdf [Accessed: 21 February 2022].

IQAir (2022) Air Quality in Indonesia. 21 February. Available from: https://www.iqair.com/indonesia [Accessed: 21 February 2022].

Rayda, N. (2021) IN FOCUS: The Ongoing Struggle to Reduce Air Pollution in Jakarta and Why the Problem has Persisted. 20 November. Channel News Asia. Available from: https://www.channelnewsasia.com/asia/indonesia-jakarta-air-pollution-emissions-vehicles-factories-2285926 [Accessed: 21 February 2022].

Salim, N. (2021) Indonesian President Guilty of Environmental Negligence in Lawsuit over Jakarta’s Chronic Air Pollution. 17 September. ABC News. Available from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-17/air-pollution-in-indonesia-court-case-jakarta/100233996 [Accessed: 21 February 2022].

Sood, A. (2021) Jakarta Residents Win Battle for Clean Air Against Indonesian Government. 16 September. CNN World. Available from: https://edition.cnn.com/2021/09/16/asia/jakarta-citizen-lawsuit-air-pollution-intl-hnk/index.html [Accessed: 21 February 2022].

UNICEF (2019) Indonesia: 10 Million Children at Risk from Air Pollution Due to Wild Forest Fires. 24 September. Available from: https://www.unicef.org/press-releases/indonesia-10-million-children-risk-air-pollution-due-wild-forest-fires [Accessed: 21 February 2022].

✿ Some Reflections

Hi everyone! This is another unplanned post I thought I could do since it’s recess week! I hope all of you are taking the time to rest, but also catch up on your assignments and submissions. On today’s post, I thought I could summarize some of the things I’ve noticed from doing research on the countries I have covered so far.

As mentioned by Larr & Neidel (2016), many countries that are going through rapid development often witness higher levels of pollution than countries that are already developed. These countries are mainly countries in the Global South. Also, equatorial regions are more likely to see warmer environmental conditions as a result of climate change. These regions tend to be homes to a much greater share of the poor nations of the Global South.

Children tend to suffer the most from pollution. Almost all the impacts of the main types of pollution (air, water, and land) affect their neurodevelopment, cognitive functioning, behaviour, and mental health. As argued by Perera (2017), unless our leaders act forcefully right now, the children of today and tomorrow will inherit an unsustainable world that lacks the ecological resources and social stability to support them. This is what Perera terms environmental injustice – the heavy health and economic burden brought by pollution fall disproportionately on the poor and the young, especially those from the Global South. They are the most vulnerable to the impacts of toxic pollutants.

This is a relatively short post but I just thought that I needed to include these reflections I made somewhere. That’s it for today’s post. Up next, my usual posts. See you in the next one! ✿

References

Larr, A.S. & Neidell, M. (2016) Pollution and Climate Change. The Future of Children. 26 (1), 93-113.

Perera, F. (2017) Pollution from Fossil-Fuel Combustion is the Leading Environmental Threat to Global Paediatric Health and Equity: Solutions Exist. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15 (1), 16.

✿ Haiti (II)

Hi everyone! In today’s second post of the week, I will be covering some academic material I discovered throughout the past few days.

I mentioned in my previous post that IQAir did not have any data on the air quality in Haiti. This finding was supported by Davis & Rappaport (2014). According to them, air quality data is remarkably limited in poor countries, and especially countries that have just resolved a conflict, or recovered from a disaster. In these countries, international relief efforts tend to focus on more pressing issues such as housing, water and sanitation, and infectious diseases. Water is a necessity for us to survive. Despite initiatives to manage water in a country like Haiti, why is water pollution still an issue for its people? This was not something that they covered. Instead, they focused solely on air pollution.

According to them, when a country is hit by an unfortunate event, such as war or a natural hazard, energy supply networks become stressed. For instance, “diesel generator use is significantly increased during periods of unstable energy supply, while the traffic congestion of high polluting old model vehicles is exacerbated by damaged road networks and crumbling infrastructure” (p. 22). Ironic, isn’t it? But this is the reality on the ground, and it is the reason why air pollution persists.

Even though Haiti is underdeveloped and does not have a lot of industries, there are still many non-industrial sources of air pollution. Haiti’s poor transportation infrastructure allows a congested mix of old vehicles that remain idle, and clog densely populated areas, thus releasing many air pollutants into the air, and worsening air quality. According to them, many people fall victim to both outdoor and indoor (as mentioned in the previous post) pollution because they tend to live near these sources of pollution. Because temporary camps and settlements get easily crowded after a natural disaster, people tend to together in less-safe areas that are less crowded. Despite this, there are barely any national or international organizations in these kinds of countries to monitor air quality, or regulate environmental and public health concerns.

The second paper by Trevors & Saier (2010) provides more room for discussion. They use Haiti as an example, but suggest various pathways people from developed nations can work towards. If we are to be worried about the welfare of mankind, and the elimination of pollution, we have to start from the source. We need to make sure unstable governments manage their ideological, cultural, or religious issues, before they make baseless claims to protect the environment and its people. We need to make sure international organizations have a common empathy to help nations in need. We also need citizens who are aware, and who are willing to fight for change. But is this really the kind of solution for people who are suffering from pollution in disaster-prone, and war-torn countries? The issues are complex. Can Haiti really achieve such a resolve? I hope to find a way to conclude my research on these many countries in the Global South on a hopeful note. Until then, I will focus on sharing the realities of those who are suffering from pollution.

Up next, Indonesia. See you in the next one! ✿

References

Davis, M. E. & Rappaport, A. (2014) Air Quality in Developing World Disaster and Conflict Zones – The Case of Post-Earthquake Haiti. Science of The Total Environment. 496, 22-25. Available from: https://www-sciencedirect-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/science/article/pii/S0048969714010055?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 18 February 2022].

Trevors, J. T. & Saier, M. H. (2010) The Crisis in Haiti, 2010: What’s to be Done. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 212, 1-2. Available from: https://link-springer-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/article/10.1007%2Fs11270-010-0338-8 [Accessed: 18 February 2022].

✿ Haiti (I)

Hi everyone! To start off the week, let’s look at Haiti! Unfortunately, the usual IQAir website I refer to does not have any air quality data contributors. It might be due to the fact that Haiti is a relatively underdeveloped and understudied area. Regardless, data from IAMAT shows that the air quality is unsafe, because the PM2.5 concentration is 15 micrograms/cubic metre, which exceeds the recommended maximum of 10 micrograms/cubic metre. If you think of Haiti, I am sure you would think of the natural disasters that happened long ago. How do such events relate to pollution in Haiti?

Haiti experienced a devastating earthquake on the 12^th of January in 2010. The 7.0Mw earthquake exacerbated many of the current problems in the country. One of which is water pollution. Haiti has been struggling with sanitation problems for years. Its beaches are filled with trash its waterways are smelly, filled with swarms of dead fish and floating debris. The earthquake only worsened the conditions of water sources.

Water pollution is still a problem, because Haiti experiences frequent hurricanes. Hurricanes contribute to coastal flooding, and in Haiti where coasts are filled with rubbish, water pollution seems like an incessant threat that cannot be fought. Some of you might think, “Why can’t they just pick up the rubbish themselves, or throw rubbish in appropriate areas?” Locals have shared that they cannot simply do so because they need to use any time they have to earn money, because they are poor. They also cannot move elsewhere, because it is equally polluted elsewhere in the country. Its government is too occupied dealing with recovering its economy, that environmental issues get set aside.

Locals also do not have proper kitchens to cook. Just like the natives in Fiji, many households depend on indoor cooking, which worsens air pollution risks. The image below shows how some mothers cook for their family. These rudimentary stoves cause smoke to be concentrated in a tight area. Mothers can suffer from eye and respiratory issues because of the harmful chemicals, particulate matters, and carcinogens released from the burning of charcoal to cook.

If you click on the link which directs you to where this image was from, and scroll down to the end of the article, you will read about initiatives from the grassroots. Some people have suggested households to utilize ethanol-based fuel rather than charcoal to reduce mothers’ exposures from cooking using open fires. But how effective have such initiatives been? In the next post of the week, I will be looking at 2 research papers on Haiti.

See you in the next one! ✿

References

Dover, F. (2010) Haiti’s Legacy of Environmental Devastation Compounded by Earthquake. 1 March. Scientific American. Available from: https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earth-talk-haitis-legacy/ [Accessed: 14 February 2022].

Herlinger, C. (2018) Environmental Vulnerabilities are Linked to Every Other Problem in Haiti. 19 April. Available from: https://www.ncronline.org/news/earthbeat/environmental-vulnerabilities-are-linked-every-other-problem-haiti [Accessed: 14 February 2022].

IAMAT (2020) Haiti General Health Risks: Air Pollution. 16 April. Available from: https://www.iamat.org/country/haiti/risk/air-pollution#:~:text=In%20accordance%20with%20the%20World,maximum%20of%2010%20%C2%B5g%2Fm3. [Accessed: 14 February 2022].

IQAir (2022) Air Quality in Haiti. 14 February. Available from: https://www.iqair.com/haiti [Accessed: 14 February 2022].

Mount Sinai (2019) Indoor Cooking and Air Pollution Risks in Homes in Haiti and Around the World. 27 September. Available from: https://health.mountsinai.org/blog/indoor-cooking-and-air-pollution-risks-in-homes-in-haiti-and-around-the-world/ [Accessed: 14 February 2022].

✿ Sullied Senegal

Hi everyone! This is another unplanned post that I figured I could talk about. As I was scrolling through my Instagram as part of my rest time, I chanced upon a post by the NY Times. It talks about plastic pollution in Senegal, a country from the Global South, and I thought I could summarize it on my blog today, and find a useful video to grab your attention on the issue.

Dakar, Senegal’s capital, holds annual marathons for people to race. This year, one man, Modou Fall, participated and wore a cape that was made out of plastic bags. He also wore a hat that was constructed out of plastic sunglasses that he found. The marathon is held every year, and hence, it attracts large crowds and wide media coverage. Hence, Modou felt that he could not miss the chance to share his concern about plastic pollution in his homeland.

During the race, he announced through his loudspeaker “I like my country, I say no to plastic bags”, gaining some fans who asked for selfies during the race. He took every opportunity he had to share with the attendees on the environmental issues haunting Senegal. He took part in the race not to run, but to collect the empty water bottles and plastic bags left behind by different groups of runners that left the starting line. Now, Modou is known as the Plastic Man.

Modou Fall sees himself as an educator, defender, and protector of the environment. Senegal is one of the top countries polluting the world’s oceans with plastic. In 2020, the Senegalese government attempted to ban plastic production, but it has a hard time enforcing this measure.

The image above is taken from the article, showing the scene in Bargny, a coastal town in Senegal, infested with plastic pollution.

Modou sought to change his country, because he has witnessed plastic pollution for far too long. According to him, he has witnessed the damaging effects of pollution since 1998, during his military service, when he saw cows in herding communities fall sick after consuming fragments of plastic bags in the arid landscape. He tried to start off by encouraging shopkeepers he knew to stop using excessive amounts of plastic, and if they could not, they should at least try to dispose of these plastics properly. Nobody listened.

He tried to take matters to his own hands by clearing the plastic produced by these shopkeepers. Although it took him 13 days, the plastic waste came back anyway. Luckily, his efforts managed to convince some shopkeepers to change their ways. But this is not enough.

Not many people in the Global South are convinced that they can do anything. If activists like Modou do not feel encouraged or supported to fight plastic pollution, then no one will. Hence, with the support he gained during the marathon, many are following his footsteps.

What do you think? Do you think activists like these can sustain their efforts in the long run?

I found this video that you can enjoy. You can see Modou yourself!

In this next video, you can see other activists in Senegal doing something to fight plastic pollution.

That’s it for today. Up next, my usual posts. See you in the next one! ✿

References

AFP News Agency (2019) Senegal: Dakar Divers Fight to Clear Plastic Tide. 5 October. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Kw4fq5bQj8 [Accessed: 14 February 2022].

Camara, M. & Maclean, R. (2022) This ‘Plastic Man’ Has a Cape and a Superhero’s Mission: Cleaning Up Senegal. 20 January. NY Times. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/20/world/africa/modou-fall-senegal.html [Accessed: 1 February 2022].

TRT World (2019) Plastic Pollution: Senegal Activists Lead Clean-Up. 13 August. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wiYlNtmzeiA [Accessed: 14 February 2022].

✿ Fiji (II)

Hi everyone! In today’s second post of the week, I will be sharing what I found from 4 research articles I read during the past few days.

The first paper I found talks about air pollution. According to Isley et al. (2018), the implications of air pollution depend on where pollutants come from. In Fiji, pollutants can come from fossil fuel combustion, road vehicles, or waste burning. Air pollutants in Fiji are mainly black carbon and sulfur. After studying the risk ratios and mortality predictions of PM2.5 concentrations, Isley et al. found that reducing emissions from fossil fuel combustion will greatly improve air quality in the region. As students in Environmental Pollution, this might seem like a “duh” statement. But to the people in the Global South who have no other means of development and progress, such a finding may ignite conflicts and disagreements within the government.

2 papers I found throughout the week talk about microplastics. I briefly mentioned the definitions of microplastics in a previous post. According to Dehm et al. (2020), the implications of microplastics on the coasts of Small Island Developing States are understudied. Hence, in their paper, they focused on Viti Levu, one of Fiji’s main inhabited islands, to study the presence of microplastics in the country. Their findings challenged the common conception that microplastics are largely found in urban areas, rather than rural areas. I personally had that misconception too! Additionally, Ferreita et al. (2020) focused on Suva, Fiji’s capital, and found that microplastics were present as well, as a result of land-based human activities. A lot of the fish in the area’s coasts have high microplastic ingestion levels. Here are some of the different microplastics that they found.

I also found a paper that studied metal pollution in the region. Metals are non-biodegradable, which means that they cannot be deteriorated in the environment. In Park et al.’s (2013) paper, I learnt that there have been high levels of lead, copper, zinc, and iron in the sediments of Suva’s Harbour. There were also high levels of mercury found in lagoon shellfish. They concluded that the release of hazardous metals into the Fiji environment would not reach a plateau anytime soon, because globalization is forcing developing nations in the Global South to industrialize to economically develop. They do shed light on how doing research like theirs is not a futile exercise, since their findings can raise awareness, and pressure their governments to do something. What do you think?

Up next, Haiti. See you in the next one! ✿

References

Dehm, J., Singh, S., Ferreira, M. & Piovanno, S. (2020) Microplastics in Subsurface Coastal Waters Along the Southern Coast of Viti Levu in Fiji, South Pacific. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 156, 1-8. Available from: https://www-sciencedirect-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/science/article/pii/S0025326X2030357X?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 11 February 2022].

Ferreira, M., Thompson, J., Paris, A., Rohindra, D. & Rico, C. (2020) Presence of Microplastics in Water, Sediments and Fish Species in an Urban Coastal Environment of Fiji, a Pacific Small Island Developing State. Marine Pollution Bulletin. 153, 1-9. Available from: https://linkinghub-elsevier-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/retrieve/pii/S0025326X20301090 [Accessed: 11 February 2022].

Isley, C. F., Nelson, P. F., Taylor, M. P., Stelcer, E., Atanacio, A. J., Cohen, D. D., Mani, F. S. & Maata, M. (2018) Reducing Mortality Risk by Targeting Specific Air Pollution Sources: Suva, Fiji. Science of The Total Environment. 612, 450-461. Available from: https://www-sciencedirect-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/science/article/pii/S0048969717322246?via%3Dihub [Accessed: 11 February 2022].

Park, E. K., Wilson, D., Choi, H. J., Wilson, C. T., Ueno, S. (2013) Hazardous Metal Pollution in the Republic of Fiji and the Need to Elicit Human Exposure. Environmental Health and Toxicology. 28, 1-3. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3909747/ [Accessed: 11 February 2022].

✿ Fiji (I)

Hi everyone! To start off the week, we will be looking at Fiji! I could not find any stations measuring the air quality in Fiji (i.e. the IQAir website I usually refer to has no data on Fiji!), hence, let us just examine where Fiji is on the world map!

It is a relatively small island located in the Pacific Ocean. I think a good tag for me to use on this post would be OCEANIA. I want my tags to start with vowels just so it looks nice in the “BROWSE BY TAG” portion at the side of my blog. My apologies. Let’s get back to work.

As of 2020, the IAMAT states that the air quality in Fiji is unsafe. But why is this so? Isn’t Fiji an island in the middle of nowhere? Could it possibly have industries and vehicles too? Recent data indicated that PM2.5 concentrations in Fiji is 11 micrograms/cubic metres in Fiji annually, and this value exceeds the recommended maximum, which is 10 micrograms/cubic metres.

A lot of the pollution in Fiji is caused by plastic. The WWF-Pacific Volunteer Program is a non-governmental organization that seeks to free Fiji from plastics by 2025. According to them, they aim to reduce marine pollution by clearing marine debris and nutrient pollution through coastal clean-ups, product bans and restrictions, and plastic recovery, reuse, and recycling. But can these be achieved? I will try to answer this question in the next blog post.

There have also been attempts to manage wastewater in Fiji. In the Bavu and Namaqumaqua villages in the southeastern coral coast of Fiji, there have been developments in wastewater treatment technologies, to provide communities with better sanitation and hygiene. This was done in collaboration with government agencies and villagers. As I mentioned previously on my post on Bolivia, integrating community knowledges helps increase the effectiveness of intervention measures. There have also been efforts to properly manage toilet systems. The ecoVIP2 toilet was created a few years ago. You can click on the link to view how the toilets look like. It might not seem much to you, but to these people living in the Global South, these toilets are a sign of modernity and development. By having these toilets in place, there will be fewer improper waste disposals in flooding areas, slopes, or underground infrastructures. Put simply, groundwater contamination will be reduced.

Now let’s return back to the air. Why did the IAMAT proclaim that the air quality in Fiji is bad? Well, according to QUT, air pollution is caused mainly by cooking, domestic refuse, agricultural processes, solid waste burning, and transport. It surprises me that islanders could pollute too! Click on the QUT website to find out how locals are engaged in fighting pollution. If you have any more information on pollution in Fiji, do share them in the comments section below. I will do my best to collate whatever I can find in the next blogpost.

See you in the next one! ✿

References

Fiji (n. d.) Beautiful World. Available from: https://www.beautifulworld.com/oceania/fiji/ [Accessed: 11 February 2022].

IAMAT (2020) Fiji General Health Risks: Air Pollution. 16 April. Available from: https://www.iamat.org/country/fiji/risk/air-pollution [Accessed: 7 February 2022].

QUT (n. d.) Assessment of Children’s Exposure to Air Pollution in Fiji, its Drivers and the Burden of Disease Attributable to it. Available from: https://research.qut.edu.au/ilaqh/projects/sensors-fiji/ [Accessed: 7 February 2022].

Reef Resilience Network (2021) Applications of Innovative Wastewater Technology in Fiji. 21 May. Available from: https://reefresilience.org/case-studies/fiji-wastewater-pollution/ [Accessed: 7 February 2022].

WWF – Pacific Volunteer Program (n. d.) Plastic Pollution – Free Fiji Campaign. United Nations Ocean Conference. Available from: https://oceanconference.un.org/commitments/?id=21080 [Accessed: 7 February 2022].

✿ Bolivia (II)

Hi everyone! In today’s second post of the week, I will be going through 2 journal articles and 1 book I found.

The book I discovered was written by Robins in 2011. It features the silver mining industry in the Andes. I briefly read through the book, but to better let you understand what happened in this part of South America, I thought that it would be great if you could watch this simple video instead.

Mining contributes to the country’s economy, and as you can see in the video, it is a precarious form of work. Robins’ book examines the interrelationships between silver (and mercury) production, urban environments, and the people who live and work in them. He specifically focuses on telling the stories of the natives and indigenous people in the region. This complements the paper done by Jacobi et al. (2016). They emphasize that local knowledges are important in development projects, because they better understand the lived and material consequences of pollution. A lot of what was being discussed in the paper ties in well with a political ecology perspective, something that I learnt in GE4219 in NUS. I believe it forms the crux of GE4232 Global Political Ecologies as well! Regardless, in our module that is mainly about environmental pollution, we can still learn about how important integrating local knowledges into pollution management strategies.

Finally, the paper done by Kirikkaleli & Oyebanji (2022) focus on the links between carbon emissions, trade (and globalization), and pollution. Though the paper centres around discussions related to climate change, it does provide some insights on pollution in Bolivia. In some parts of Bolivia, polluting industries continue to pollute because the regulations to monitor pollution are weak. This is a recurring problem in many developing countries in the Global South. Nevertheless, as you did see in the IQAir projection in the previous blog post, the air quality in Bolivia is much less polluted than in other countries in the Global South. It would be ideal for these countries to follow Bolivia’s path. Although imperfect, it is proof that developing countries can instigate improvement themselves.

Up next, Fiji. See you in the next one! ✿

References

BBC News (2014) ‘The mountain that eats men’ in Bolivia – BBC News. 9 October. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XHZS74Z9qlM [Accessed: 4 February 2022].

Jacobi, J., Mathez-Stiefel, S. L., Gambon, H., Rist, S. & Altieri, M. (2016) Whose Knowledge, Whose Development? Use and Role of Local and External Knowledge in Agroforestry Projects in Bolivia. Environmental Management. 59, 464-476. Available from: https://link-springer-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/content/pdf/10.1007/s00267-016-0805-0.pdf [Accessed: 4 February 2022].

Kirikkaleli, D. & Oyebanji, M. O. (2022) Consumption-Base Carbon Emissions, Trade, and Globalization: An Empirical Study of Bolivia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. Available from: https://link-springer-com.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/article/10.1007%2Fs11356-022-18495-6 [Accessed: 4 February 2022].

Robins, N. A. (2011) Mercury, Mining, and Empire: The Human and Ecological Cost of Colonial Silver Mining in the Andes. Indiana University Press. Available from: https://muse-jhu-edu.libproxy1.nus.edu.sg/book/12859 [Accessed: 4 February 2022].

✿ Bolivia (I)

Hi everyone! To start off the week, let us dive into Bolivia! I was slightly shocked after searching up on this country because unlike other countries in the Global South, Bolivia is not severely polluted at all! As you can see in the image below, IQAir shows that the AQI index is 2 in Lapaz. That is a significantly low number! It is also shaded in green, which means that the air quality is good.

You can also see in the image some areas of fire. According to IAMAT, Bolivia faces seasonal agricultural fires in the dry months during May to November. It is currently January, so this might the reason why pollution levels seem so low. Apart from that, pollution in Bolivia is mainly caused by oil refineries, on top of usual causes of pollution in other countries, such as vehicle emissions, and waste burning in households and agricultural land.

Other sites tend to praise the efforts by the country in managing pollution levels. According to the UNEP, Bolivia manages its chemicals and waste decently well. Bolivia is considered a low-middle-income country, and in some parts of the country, chemical management policies are not effectively carried out. Regardless, in 2019, these parts of the country have partnered with the UNEP to strengthen national capacities to properly manage chemicals and waste, though the establishment of a Chemicals and Waste Unit in the country. A specific budget has also been allocated to ensure that the government’s treasury department supports other activities under this project. Permanent personnel have also been hired to ensure the operation of this project goes well during the short and long term.

There is also an effective wastewater treatment process in place in the country since 2017. This was developed by the Ministry of Environment and Water, to better regulate wastewater disposal, and to promote a circular economy. This video below explains the initiative better. Maybe other countries in the Global South could emulate such initiatives!

During that same year (2017), there was a nationwide car-free day. The initiative began since 2006, and it has been continuing since, because the country’s people realize how beneficial it is to not use vehicles. You can read more about it by clicking the link! If only many more people in the Global South could live in societies governed by capable leaders. In the next post of the week, I will be delving deeper into understanding how Bolivia can effectively keep pollution levels low.

See you in the next one! ✿

References

Alvestegui, A. (2020) Reuse and Reduce: The Case for Better Wastewater Treatment in Bolivia. 19 March. World Bank Blogs. Available from: https://blogs.worldbank.org/water/reuse-and-reduce-case-better-wastewater-treatment-bolivia [Accessed: 31 January 2022].

Farthing, L. (2017) Pollution Levels in Bolivia Plummet on Nationwide Car-Free Day. 3 September. The Guardian. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/sep/03/bolivia-car-free-day-pollution [Accessed: 31 January 2022].

IAMAT (2020) Bolivia General Health Risks: Air Pollution. 16 April. Available from: https://www.iamat.org/country/bolivia/risk/air-pollution#:~:text=Contributors%20to%20poor%20air%20quality,November)%20due%20to%20agricultural%20fires. [Accessed: 31 January 2022].

IQAir (2022) Air Quality in Bolivia. 31 January. Available from: https://www.iqair.com/bolivia [Accessed: 31 January 2022].

UNEP (2019) Bolivia Takes Steps to Protect its Rich Natural Landscapes and Strengthen Environmental Practices. 8 November. Available from: https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/bolivia-takes-steps-protect-its-rich-natural-landscapes-and-strengthen [Accessed: 31 January 2022].

World Bank Water (2020) Working Towards Better Wastewater Treatment in Bolivia. 19 March. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=APTRAHJT62A&feature=emb_imp_woyt [Accessed: 31 January 2022].