Author: Li-Ann Hoong

Death by Cellphone: Grauer’s Gorillas

Saving the critically endangered gorillas of the Congo Basin

A critically endangered Grauer’s gorilla (Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, 2021).

You’re probably wondering what cellphones have to do with a gorilla species endemic to the forests of the Congo Basin in Africa.

They are, however, related. It’s thanks to the production of cellphones that the Gorilla beringei graueri (Grauer’s gorilla) has become critically endangered in recent years. In part due to the mining of minerals used to produce cellphones, the species has declined in population by 80% over the past 25 years (Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, 2021). Mining activities in Congo are driven by the demand for “conflict metals”,  which are used in the production of cellphones. These mining activities often take place outside regulatory frameworks and in protected areas such as the Kahuzi-Biega National Park. As a result, this threatens species like the Grauer’s gorilla as well as other endangered species in the region like eastern lowland gorillas.

This video, put together by the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, is a call to action to raise awareness on the critically endangered species. Some zoos have actually capitalised on this, blending a promotion of better recycling practices with their conservation campaigns for the gorillas. One example is Zoos Victoria in Australia, which has started the ‘They’re Calling on You’ mobile phone recycling community campaign.

An Australian tourist on a gorilla tourism experience at Kahuzi-Biega National Park (Litchfield et al., 2018).

This illuminates how eco-tourism could be blended with mobile phone collection campaigns to raise awareness on the ecological impacts of e-waste pollution. According to Litchfield et al. (2018), ‘They’re Calling on You’ was highly successful—a total of 115,369 mobile phones were donated from 2009 to 2014. Close-up encounters as part of eco-tourism was also a big contributing factor to this, where one phone was donated for every four people attending keeper talks at Werribee Open Range Zoo and one phone for every 28 people attending keeper talks at Melbourne Zoo.

Though the situation for these gorillas have been dire, things seem to be looking up for the gorillas through such creative cross-themed conservation campaign efforts. This concludes our chapter on “Implications”, and we’ve also briefly discussed some possible solutions that could be undertaken. Next time, we’ll start on the “Solutions” chapter of this blog, and delve even deeper into the possible ways we can tackle the global e-waste challenge moving forward.

References

Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International. (2021). Good news for Grauer’s Gorillas. Retrieved 11 March 2022, from https://gorillafund.org/gorilla-protection/good-news-for-grauers-gorillas/.

Litchfield, C. A., Lowry, R., & Dorrian, J. (2018). Recycling 115,369 mobile phones for gorilla conservation over a six-year period (2009-2014) at Zoos Victoria: A case study of ‘points of influence’ and mobile phone donations. PloS One, 13(12), e0206890-e0206890. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206890.

The World’s Largest E-Waste Dumping Ground

Feeding the informal sector: Migrants in Guiyu

In the last post, we talked about the health impacts of working and scavenging at e-waste dumpsites in Nigeria. Since these dumpsites sound so dangerous, wouldn’t it be better to just get rid of them as a whole? Unfortunately, the problem is a lot more complicated than that. This time, let’s have a look at another similar example. Rather than the health impacts, however, let’s focus on the socio-economic intricacies related to these dumpsites.

Guiyu, located in the Chinese province of Guangdong, has one claim to fame—it’s the world’s largest e-waste dumping ground.

Worker sorts through e-waste in one of the government-managed recycling centres located in Guiyu (Sommer, 2015).

In Guiyu, migrants from neighbouring cities like Hunan and Anhui account for about 70% of e-waste workers. These migrants move to cities like Guiyu in search of jobs in the city’s e-waste sector, engaging in informal activities to make a living. Such informal work is relatively lucrative, especially compared to formal activities, which often require permits and paperwork that many of these migrants cannot provide. This has thus lead to the creation of a booming informal e-waste sector in Chinese cities like Guiyu, which makes up as much as 98% of all e-waste activities in the country (Abalansa et al., 2021).

Many of these migrant workers have little education and are of less privileged socio-economic backgrounds, putting them at risk of being exploited for the low-skill work that they engage in. They are also less likely to follow safety guidelines in order to achieve maximum efficiency and productivity, to maximise their income from their work. Reports of child labour have also plagued the city. An article on the plight of migrant workers in the e-waste sector in China describes the experience of working in Guiyu:

Li Xiu Lan traveled the breadth of China to escape destitution in Sichuan province. Here on a Guiyu sidewalk, she is pulling apart a PC carcass, earning about 17 cents an hour as she exposes herself to a witch’s brew of chemicals without gloves, goggles or other protection.

‘I don’t know yet if I like this work,’ said Li, 30, who had been on the job about one month. ‘But back home, there are no jobs. There is no money. There is nothing to do.’ 

Even though the health impacts of toxic e-waste sites are obvious, the nature of working in informal sectors and the socio-economic backgrounds of the workers at such sites render them especially vulnerable to risks related to working in the informal e-waste sector. Moreover, these workers tend to have no choice but to continue working under such awful conditions, due to their lack of other work options.

Eradicating the informal e-waste sector as a whole, while a tempting solution for governments, would mean that thousands of workers who rely on the sector to make a living would suddenly be out of jobs. This highlights how the e-waste sector is deeply intertwined with structural inequalities and disparities in society, and requires carefully curated solutions to effectively address the problem and preserve the livelihoods of affected workers.

References

Abalansa, S., El Mahrad, B., Icely, J., & Newton, A. (2021). Electronic waste, an environmental problem exported to developing countries: The GOOD, the BAD and the UGLY. Sustainability (Basel, Switzerland), 13(9), 5302. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13095302.

China Labour Bulletin. (2015). The Plight of China’s E-Waste Workers. Retrieved 7 March 2022, from https://clb.org.hk/content/plight-chinas-e-waste-workers.

Sommer, J. (2015). The world’s largest electronic-waste dump looks like a post-apocalyptic nightmare. Insider. Retrieved 7 March 2022, from https://www.businessinsider.com/photos-of-chinas-electronic-waste-dump-town-guiyu-2015-7.

Health Risks in Nigeria

Health Impacts of E-Waste Pollution: The case of Nigeria

Previously, we discussed the various impacts that e-waste pollution can have on the environment—soil, air, and water. Naturally, this doesn’t just affect the environment around us; it also has significant consequences for us as human beings. In today’s post, we’ll be focusing on real-life case studies demonstrating the potential health risks that come with e-waste disposal in developing countries. Here’s a video by the UN Environment Programme that explains what dismantlers in Nigeria have to go through when handling e-waste that gets dumped in their country.

According to the video, Nigeria receives up to 70,000 tonnes of used electronics from developed countries every year. Imagine that!

The dangers of e-waste in Nigeria are compounded by the fact that the country only has crude and informal recycling methods, and are poorly equipped to handle the large amounts of e-waste dumped there (Manhart et al., 2011). Coupled by the fact that many dumpsites and electronic markets are situated within residential areas, human exposure to the hazards of e-waste has been increasing exponentially in the past decade.

Diagram on the effects of e-waste exposure in Nigeria (Alabi et al., 2020).

A study conducted on scavenging teenagers who frequent such dumpsites in Nigeria found that the toxic constituents of e-waste contributed to high blood heavy metal levels in the teenagers, and subsequently, lasting DNA damage. Other observed health effects also include body aches, migraine, nausea, spontaneous abortion, and cancer (Alabi & Bakare, 2015).

From this, it is evident that there is an urgent need to address the dumping of e-waste due to its extensive health risks, particularly in developing nations which receive the brunt of the issue.

References

Alabi, O. A., Adeoluwa, Y. M., & Bakare, A. A. (2020). Elevated serum pb, ni, cd, and cr levels and DNA damage in exfoliated buccal cells of teenage scavengers at a major electronic waste dumpsite in Lagos, Nigeria. Biological Trace Element Research, 194(1), 24-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-019-01745-z.

Alabi, O. A. & Bakare, A. A. (2015). Perceived public health effects of occupational and residential exposure to electronic wastes in Lagos, Nigeria. Zoologist, 13(2015), 62-71.

Manhart, A., Osibanjo, O., Aderinto, A., & Prakash, S. (2011). Informal e-waste management in Lagos, Nigeria – socio-economic impacts and feasibility of international recycling co-operations. UNEP SBC E-Waste Africa Project, Lagos/Freiburg.

Water Pollution and Marine Life

Something smells fishy…

Have you heard of the Daphnia magna?

The water flea (Daphnia magna), a filter feeder that consumes algae, protozoan, or organic matter (Enbiolab, n.d.).

You might not have, but it’s a crucial part of the basic food chain that helps the world go round. The water flea (Daphna magna) is a tiny planktonic crustacean that typically resides in lakes or ponds. Though it may be small, what makes it so important is that many fishes and other marine invertebrates rely on them as a source of food.

So, what has this got to do with e-waste? According to Bao et al. (2020), the Daphnia magna suffers from many adverse impacts resulting from exposure to e-waste leachate. Exposure to toxic chemicals served to slow the development of the species, as well as other impacts such as decreased egg production in females, and smaller body sizes.

This is just one example of the many marine species that may be affected by improperly disposed e-waste. Not only does exposure to e-waste leachate affect such marine species themselves by impeding their growth, it also causes multiple issues further down the food chain. For instance, the impeded development of fish food like the Daphna magna could mean that fish further down the food chain do not get enough food that they require. More importantly, the pollutants sometimes remain inside their food and get passed down the food chains, poisoning marine life. This can even have a trickle-down effect to human beings who catch and consume the contaminated fish (Zhao et al., 2006).

Clearly, this highlights how the contamination of the marine environment via e-waste leachate can pose a severe threat to both environmental and human health due to the intricate intertwined nature of the two. As mentioned before in previous posts, it is precisely because seemingly small actions can have a large ripple effect that the issue of e-waste pollution is so dangerous for the Earth we live on.

References

Bao, S., Pan, B., Wang, L., Cheng, Z., Liu, X., Zhou, Z., & Nie, X. (2020). Adverse effects in daphnia magna exposed to e-waste leachate: Assessment based on life trait changes and responses of detoxification-related genes. Environmental Research, 188, 109821-109821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109821.

Enbiolab. (n.d.). Water flea. Retrieved 27 February 2022, from http://www.enbiolabperu.com/index.php/en/ecotoxicity-tests/water-flea-daphnia-magna-ted-kinsman-2/.

Zhao, G., Xu, Y., Han, G., & Ling, B. (2006). Biotransfer of persistent organic pollutants from a large site in China used for the disassembly of electronic and electrical waste. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 28(4), 341-351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-005-9003-3.

Air Quality at E-Waste Sites

Coming up for air: PM10 concentrations at e-waste sites

Air pollution on the banks of the Ramganga, Moradabad, where thousands rely on clearing and processing e-waste to make a living (Johri, 2017).

We often hear about the air pollution that blankets countries like India and China. In places like Moradabad, India, the thick smog has actually been attributed to the problem of e-waste pollution.

According to Gangwar et al. (2019), illegal e-waste recycling was a major cause of increase in PM10 concentration in Moradabad. The intense air pollution levels that the city suffered through in 2018 exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality (NAAQ) standards. In January 2018, the highest PM10 concentration of 371 μg/m3 was recorded, which was a whopping 3.71 times higher than the NAAQ standard.

Moradabad is home to a large informal e-waste recycling sector, being a hub for the recycling of products like printed circuit boards (PCBs). The informal sector uses crude and rudimentary methods to process e-waste, such as dismantling, combustion, incineration and open burning. During processes such as the mechanical separation and dismantling of PCBs, fine particulate matter gets released into the air. Gangwar et al. (2019) concluded that such methods were what resulted in the high levels of air particulate matter recorded, especially heavy metal levels.

Air pollution is just one of the direct impacts of improper e-waste disposal. This can, of course, have many serious implications for the humans living and breathing in such contaminated air. We’ll discuss the human impacts of living in proximity to such e-waste polluted sites in future posts. Stay tuned for more!

References

Gangwar, C., Choudhari, R., Chauhan, A., Kumar, A., Singh, A., & Tripathi, A. (2019). Assessment of air pollution caused by illegal e-waste burning to evaluate the human health risk. Environment International, 125, 191-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.11.051.

Johri, A. D. (2017). On November 7, Moradabad recorded highest levels on pollution scale, but few were looking. The Indian Express. Retrieved 17 February 2022, from https://indianexpress.com/article/india/on-november-7-moradabad-aqi-500-recorded-highest-levels-on-pollution-scale-4943930/.

The Ecological Impacts of E-Waste Pollution

When e-waste becomes a problem

This posts marks the beginning of the “Implications” chapter, where we’ll focus on the consequences of e-waste pollution and how it can affect the world we live in in various ways.

After the previous “Origins” chapter, you might be wondering—what’s so awful about e-waste, anyway?

E-waste tends to contain harmful substances, such as organic pollutants (e.g. polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)). They usually also contain amounts of heavy metals like lead, zinc, copper and cadmium (Liu et al., 2015). The hazardous substances found in e-waste can potentially end up being released into the environment, especially if the e-waste is recycled or disposed of improperly.

As mentioned in previous weeks, e-waste is generally exported from developed to developing countries. A whopping 82.6% of global e-waste is recycled informally in unorganised sectors (Rautela et al., 2021), which magnifies the pollution risks from the toxic chemicals.

Routes of pollutants into the environment due to informal e-waste disposal and recycling practices (Rautela et al., 2021).

The toxic substances in e-waste can find its way into the environment via various pathways illustrated in the diagram above. Pollutive impacts include the contamination of:

  • soil (through the leaching of toxic elements and effluent discharge)
  • air (open burning of circuit boards, emission of toxic fumes and suspended particulate matter), and
  • water (acidic effluent discharge, washing of circuit boards, disposing the waste residue into the nearby drainage systems) (Rautela et al., 2021).

These subsequently create a ripple effect, disrupting the ecological balance of the environment around us. For instance, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were found to have migrated into the environment in Longtang Town, Guangdong Province, China, which is home to one of China’s largest e-waste recycling sites (Wang et al., 2012). Higher levels of PAHs were discovered in the soil and vegetation near the dumpsites, as compared to elsewhere. These then entered the food chain through vegetables, prompting Wang et al. (2012) to advise against vegetable cultivation near the e-waste recycling sites.

The contamination of soil and vegetation is merely the tip of the iceberg—one of the most basic and direct impacts that e-waste pollution can have on the environment. Next time, we’ll discuss more about the air and water pollutive potential of e-waste disposal. See you then!

References

Liu, J., He, X., Lin, X., Chen, W., Zhou, Q., Shu, W., & Huang, L. (2015). Ecological effects of combined pollution associated with E‑Waste recycling on the composition and diversity of soil microbial communities. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(11), 6438-6447. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5049804.

Rautela, R., Arya, S., Vishwakarma, S., Lee, J., Kim, K., & Kumar, S. (2021). E-waste management and its effects on the environment and human health. The Science of the Total Environment, 773, 145623-145623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145623.

Wang, Y., Tian, Z., Zhu, H., Cheng, Z., Kang, M., Luo, C., Li, J., & Zhang, G. (2012). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soils and vegetation near an e-waste recycling site in South China: Concentration, distribution, source, and risk assessment. The Science of the Total Environment, 439, 187-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.08.018.

Covid-19 and Zoom University

The rise of e-waste pollution in the wake of the Covid-19 pandemic

Lockdown, early 2020.

The Covid-19 pandemic that swept the world signalled the start of the majority of the population working or studying from home, via their own personal electronic devices.

The transition to Work-From-Home (WFH) schemes and online classes led to an increase in the consumption of personal devices such as monitors, laptops and other electronic accessories.

The average Work-From-Home (WFH) setup consists of multiple electronic devices, and often more than one monitor (Lovelace, 2020).

In the second quarter of 2020, the personal computing devices (PCD) industry saw a 11.2% year-on-year growth in the sales of desktops, laptops and other related devices (Yu et al., 2020). I myself am guilty of this, having purchased a new monitor to make attending classes from home more comfortable. With many people stuck at home with limited forms of entertainment, many turned to gaming as hobbies. The gaming industry also enjoyed a considerable amount of growth in the wake of the pandemic, with console sales increasing by 155% (Yu et al., 2020). Naturally, with greater consumption comes greater waste generation.

Besides causing the consumption levels of electronic devices to skyrocket, the pandemic also had a significant impact on the the e-waste chain, disrupting processes such as collection and transportation. For instance, the collection frequency of e-waste was affected, while a decrease in workers availability and safety was observed, as well as an increase in retrenchment (Dutta et al., 2021).

As established in my previous posts, there was already an emerging global problem of e-waste prior to the Covid-19 era. Thanks to the pandemic, the problem has escalated even more rapidly. It is thus even more imperative that we take action to address the rapidly escalating issue of e-waste pollution—before it’s too late.

References

Dutta, D., Arya, S., Kumar, S., & Lichtfouse, E. (2021). Electronic waste pollution and the COVID-19 pandemic. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 20(2), 971-974. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-021-01286-9.

Lovelace, B. (2020). Best computer monitors for 2020 under £500. Mirror. Retrieved 12 February 2022, from https://www.mirror.co.uk/tech/best-computer-monitors-2020-under-21799456.

Yu, D., Yu, K., & Tan, R. (2020). Implications of the pandemic-induced electronic equipment demand surge on essential technology metals. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption, 1, 100005. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clrc.2020.100005.

Overconsumption and Irresponsible Consumer Habits

E-waste can’t keep up with consumerism trends

Every 2020 iPhone released by Apple (Gartenberg, 2020).

Though it might be a hard pill to swallow, consumers like you and I are equally guilty in contributing to the global e-waste problem.

As Aaron Blum, co-founder and chief operating officer of ERI, stated,

“In our society, we always have to have the new, best product.”

This is a clear trend observed in society today, where middle-class consumers constantly purchase new tech devices even if they are not absolutely essential. One recent viral video by TikTok user @itskeyonn prompted a wave of people using his sound to show off their unboxing of their newly purchased iPads, with the belief that buying an iPad would help organise and improve their lives in some way. Over 3300 people have since hopped on the bandwagon, posting their videos as part of this trend. Did all these people really need that new iPad? It remains to be seen.

In this day and age, many of us consumers treat our expensive personal electronic devices as though they are disposable commodities. We discard old devices in favour of purchasing the newest models—even if those new models might not differ that much in specifications or features from our current devices.  This psychological craving for novelty drives consumers in the 21st century, highlighting this innate impulse to “buy how things make us feel”. Things like social influence, brand loyalty and sometimes just sheer habit all contribute to such consumer behaviour (Lee, 2020).

The next time you place an order for the newest iPhone model, think twice before you act. Consider: do you really need a new phone? Or is it just a “fear of missing out” and peer pressure that’s enticing you to cart out your purchase?

References

Gartenberg, C. (2020). How to choose between all the new iPhone 12 models. The Verge. Retrieved 6 February 2022, from https://www.theverge.com/circuitbreaker/21508433/apple-iphone-12-models-differences-comparisons-how-to-choose.

Lee, H. J. (2020). A study of consumer repurchase behaviors of smartphones using artificial neural network. Information (Basel), 11(9), 400. https://doi.org/10.3390/INFO11090400.

Taking a Local Look at E-Waste

E-waste in Singapore: What’s the current situation?

Having looked at the overall state of e-waste in the world in the past few posts, let’s take a closer dive into the current situation closer to home—right here in Singapore.

According to a study conducted by the NEA, around 60,000 tonnes of e-waste is generated each year (Bhunia, 2018). To put things into perspective, that’s equivalent to 11 kg per person, the same as if every person in Singapore discarded 70 mobile phones in a year! Shocking, isn’t it? You may not think that our tiny little red dot generates that much e-waste in a year, but the truth is that it does.

The current state of e-waste in Singapore (NEA, 2018).

If handled and dismantled correctly, electronic products can be recycled and reused. However, the NEA study discovered that only a meagre 6% of the e-waste produced was successfully recycled (around 3,660 tonnes). This means that we have a long way to go before we can be satisfied with the state of e-waste disposal in Singapore. The state of waste disposal here is also especially worrying considering that the only landfill in Singapore is projected to run out of space by 2035—we need to find a way to deal with our e-waste problem, and fast.

References

NEA. (2018). Stakeholders Sharing Responsibility Is Key To Building A Sustainable E-Waste Management System: NEA Study. Retrieved 3 February 2022, from https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/news/news/index/stakeholders-sharing-responsibility-is-key-to-building-a-sustainable-e-waste-management-system-nea-study.

The Global Distribution of E-Waste

E-waste around the world: Inequalities and imbalances

Much like any other global issue, the problem of e-waste is one that is riddled with inequalities and imbalances.

 

(a) Global distribution of e-waste generated (kg per capita); (b) percentage increase of e-waste generated from worldwide 2014-2017.

(a) The global distribution of e-waste generated (kg per capita); (b) the percentage increase of global e-waste generated from 2014 to 2017 (Purchase et al., 2020).

The world’s production of e-waste is largely concentrated in Asia and North America. In 2019, Asia alone generated 24.9 Mt (5.6 kg per capita) of e-waste, as compared to just 0.03 Mt (2.5 kg per capita) that Africa generated (Forti et al., 2020). Naturally, the developed world generates more e-waste than the developing world, due to the availability of electronic equipment in developed societies.

Another trend can easily be spotted in Diagram B. Economies which are rapidly growing, such as China, tend to have a high percentage increase of e-waste generated in the recent decade. This is likely due to the sharp increase in electronic products required to facilitate such development processes in these places.

The global flow of e-waste exports.

The global flow of e-waste exports (Purchase et al., 2020).

Subsequently, a few main patterns can be observed in the global flow of e-waste exports. Generally, e-waste flows from developed countries (which don’t always have the space to dispose of their waste properly), to developing countries, which are often exploited in this chain. Remember the previous post on the Khian Sea waste disposal incident? That’s exactly what continues to happen till this day, despite treaties and laws put in place to try and stop this from happening.

Even though e-waste is a global issue, it doesn’t affect all countries equally. This also poses specific challenges for us, should we wish to solve the problem of e-waste effectively and sustainably.

References

Forti V., Baldé C.P., Kuehr R., & Bel G. (2020). The Global E-waste Monitor 2020: Quantities, flows and the circular economy potential. United Nations University (UNU)/United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) – co-hosted SCYCLE Programme, International Telecommunication Union (ITU) & International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), Bonn/Geneva/Rotterdam.

Purchase, D., Abbasi, G., Bisschop, L., Chatterjee, D., Ekberg, C., Ermolin, M., Fedotov, P., Garelick, H., Isimekhai, K., Kandile, N. G., Lundström, M., Matharu, A., Miller, B. W., Pineda, A., Popoola, O. E., Retegan, T., Ruedel, H., Serpe, A., Sheva, Y., . . . Wong, M. H. (2020). Global occurrence, chemical properties, and ecological impacts of e-wastes (IUPAC technical report). Pure and Applied Chemistry, 92(11), 1733-1767. https://doi.org/10.1515/pac-2019-0502.