In the third and final continuation of this series, we will delve further into why cosmetic pollution is framed as the “women’s” problem and how the issue should be tackled instead. 

Oftentimes, makeup consumption reinforces the gender binary of men and women, that only women are allowed to consume and wear makeup as it is observed as a “feminine thing” to do (Jairath & Daima, 2021; Deutsch, 2007). As a result, since the primary consumer base of makeup products are women, the blame of makeup pollution tends to fall on women as well. 

Interestingly enough, there has been a gradual shift in makeup or more broadly, cosmetic consumption toward men as well. According to a study by IPSOS (2022), younger men aged 18-34 are more open to using makeup, with only 37% saying they would never consider using it. This was opposed to older males over the age of 51, where 73% said they would never use makeup (IPSOS, 2022). This suggests an increasing openness and acceptance towards makeup amongst men. Furthermore, research has also highlighted the role of TikTok in going against gender stereotypes through the increasing number of male beauty content creators (Foster and Baker, 2022). Just based on a simple Google search, the shift is clearly evident. 

Figure 1. Screenshot of a Google search of male beauty content creators. Source: Author.

However, would this then suggest that male consumers are now responsible for a percentage of makeup pollution? In doing so, we are assuming that only consumers are responsible for the pollutive impacts of cosmetics. We then effectively fail to consider the wider power relations at play and accord the blame to individuals. While it is true that each individual can and should play a role in tackling cosmetics pollution especially through ethical consumption, what are the corporations doing? 

With the growing awareness of climate change and the need for sustainability, there has also been an increasing popularity and need for companies to match up. This is no different for the cosmetics industry, where companies have been implementing sustainability strategies in order to green their supply chain and sending out eco-friendly marketing campaigns for their products (Kolling et al., 2021; Monroe et al., 2021). However, further research has also brought up the prevalence of greenwashing from cosmetic companies, in which their products, though marketed as environmentally-friendly, are not (Riccolo, 2021). 

This then suggests not only the need for stricter regulations and stringent audits, but also the complexity behind the root cause of cosmetics pollution. While this series has mainly focused on cosmetics pollution, the need to find out the root cause behind the diverse types of pollution and tackle if effectively also require a nuanced view. Hopefully, this series has been interesting for you, as we delved through the pollutive impacts of makeup in the past till present day and the shifting trends in the cosmetics industry in how it may contribute to or mitigate its pollutive impacts. 

References 

Deutsch, F. M. (2007). Undoing gender. Gender & Society, 21(1), 106–127. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206293577 

Foster, J., & Baker, J. (2022). Muscles, makeup, and Femboys: Analyzing Tiktok’s “radical” masculinities. Social Media + Society, 8(3), 205630512211260. https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051221126040 

IPSOS. (2022). There’s a market for men’s cosmetics–and a generation gap – Ipsos. IPSOS. Retrieved April 12, 2023, from https://www.ipsos.com/en-us/knowledge/customer-experience/there-is-a-market-for-mens-cosmetics-and-a-generation-gap 

Jairath, J., & Daima, R. (2021). Role of Pop Culture in Popularising Gender-Bending Fashion and Ideals of Beauty and Makeup. International Journal of Policy Sciences and Law, 1(3). https://doi.org/https://ijpsl.in/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Role-of-Pop-Culture-in-Popularizing-Gender-Bending-Fashion-and-Ideals-of-Beauty-and-Makeup_Jaanvi-Jairath-Rhea-Daima.pdf 

Kolling, C., Ribeiro, J. L., & de Medeiros, J. F. (2022). Performance of the cosmetics industry from the perspective of corporate social responsibility and design for Sustainability. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 30, 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2021.12.002 

Morea, D., Fortunati, S., & Martiniello, L. (2021). Circular economy and Corporate Social Responsibility: Towards an integrated strategic approach in the multinational cosmetics industry. Journal of Cleaner Production, 315, 128232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128232 

Riccolo, A. (2021). The lack of regulation in preventing greenwashing of cosmetics in the US. J. Legis., 47, 133.

In 2022, the cosmetics market alone was valued at USD 262.21 billion, and is expected to continue growing to hit USD 363.80 billion by 2030 (Grand View Research, 2023). Taking into account the growing value of cosmetics, inclusive of makeup, skincare and other beauty products, do we truly understand the impact these products have on the environment and our bodies? While we may make light of how pollutive makeup was towards human health in the past and dismiss it as a lack of knowledge, are we aware of its pollutive impacts today towards the collective environment? 

A key concern is the pervasiveness of plastics throughout the cosmetics supply chain. From product creation, to packaging and end-of-life, the issue of plastics re-surfaces time and again. In cosmetic products, these microplastics or microbeads are used to alter the texture to make it smoother and thicker for application, or to provide the product with exfoliation qualities (Anagnosti et al., 2021). 

Figure 1. Microbeads in cosmetics. Source: (Guerranti et al., 2019)

While these microbeads may not be found in alarmingly high concentrations, their small size of approximately 0.1mm make them easy to ingest and accumulate up the food chain (Guerranti et al., 2019). Furthermore, these microbeads may also damage to the digestive systems of the marine life that consume them (Guerranti et al., 2019). These microplastics have not only been widespread in marine pollution, but it has also been found to have high risk of consumption by humans, as they are found in the commonly consumed portions of marine life (Anagnosti et al., 2021). 

Zero Waste Week has highlighted that plastic packaging from the cosmetics industry exceeds 120 billion units every year, where the need for landfills result in the deforestation of 72.8m2 annually alongside its contribution to the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (Banuba, 2023). Unfortunately, for plastic packaging in cosmetics, they are often single-use to maintain the hygiene and quality levels of the product (Cinelli et al., 2019). Furthermore, the contamination of the product on the packaging itself make the recycling process complex and costly, which suggests why majority of the packaging end up in landfills and in the ocean (Cinelli et al., 2019). Not to mention, the plastics itself is not the only cause of pollution and harm to marine life. The chemicals within cosmetic products that are also washed into oceans, such as parabens and sulphates, are unsafe for marine life (Mishra et al., 2021). 

Cosmetics pollution is ever-present, from the production process to when it becomes discarded as waste. As consumers, we often focus on the quality of the product and how it can improve our external appearance. However, we fail to consider, or even dismiss, its impact on the environment. Since cosmetics are often viewed as a feminine product, be it from skincare to makeup to fragrances, some may place the blame of this pollution entirely on women. In the next part of the series, we will then delve in the gendered and wider power relations at play within the cosmetic pollution scene today. 

References 

Anagnosti, L., Varvaresou, A., Pavlou, P., Protopapa, E., & Carayanni, V. (2021). Worldwide actions against plastic pollution from microbeads and microplastics in cosmetics focusing on European policies. has the issue been handled effectively? Marine Pollution Bulletin, 162, 111883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111883 

Banuba. (2023, January 20). Cosmetic waste. Banuba AR Technologies: All-In-One AR SDK for Business. Retrieved April 12, 2023, from https://www.banuba.com/blog/cosmetic-waste#:~:text=According%20to%20statistics%20from%20the,to%20ecological%20and%20sustainable%20standards 

Cinelli, P., Coltelli, M., Signori, F., Morganti, P., & Lazzeri, A. (2019). Cosmetic packaging to save the environment: Future perspectives. Cosmetics, 6(2), 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics6020026 

Grand View Research. (2023). Cosmetics market size, Share & Growth Analysis Report, 2030. Cosmetics Market Size, Share & Growth Analysis Report, 2030. Retrieved April 12, 2023, from https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/cosmetics-market#:~:text=The%20cosmetics%20market%20was%20estimated,USD%20363.80%20billion%20by%202030 

Guerranti, C., Martellini, T., Perra, G., Scopetani, C., & Cincinelli, A. (2019). Microplastics in cosmetics: Environmental issues and needs for global bans. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 68, 75–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2019.03.007 

Mishra, P., Kiran, N. S., Romanholo Ferreira, L. F., & Mulla, S. I. (2021). Algae bioprocess to deal with cosmetic chemical pollutants in natural ecosystems: A comprehensive review. Journal of Basic Microbiology, 62(9), 1083–1097. https://doi.org/10.1002/jobm.202100467

Considering the prevalence of makeup today, be it through social media platforms like TikTok or Instagram, even on people – that is mostly women – in our daily lives, I began to grow curious about what makeup was like in the past and if it even existed. 

I came across this video on Queen Elizabeth I and how her own makeup may have caused her death. Looking at the portrayals of what she might have looked like at that time, I felt slightly horrified that that used to be the standard of beauty.

Figure 1. Re-enactment of Queen Elizabeth’s makeup. Source: Charleston (2019)

Figure 2. Painting of Queen Elizabeth. Source: Barzey (2021)

During her reign, she suffered from smallpox which left scars and marks on her face, leaving her self-conscious and even more persistent in regaining her beauty especially as a royal figure (Charlseton, 2019). It was found that their version of our modern day foundation, called “venetian ceruse”, contained lead while their lipstick contained mercury (Brophy, 2022). Historians have hypothesised that perhaps the thick and consistent reapplications of makeup on her skin, may have caused lead and mercury poisoning, resulting in her skin and even mental deterioration near the end of her life (Seaver, 2023). 

While all these news and findings on Queen Elizabeth may seem sensational, the usage of such highly-toxic makeup was not only limited to the royalty. The need to chase after beauty and perfection was widespread amongst the common folk as well. The usage of kohl, a common product used in ancient Egypt to line the eyes, was also found to contain dangerous levels of lead (Parry and Eaton, 1991). Lead, mercury and even arsenic were also found in the cosmetic products of women during the Roman Empire, where these toxic metals were seen as the key to a “fair” complexion and “healthy” colours on the face (Stewart, 2019). 

Although many may scoff and assume that using such toxic products on one’s skin is a mistake of the past, we need to realise that the chemicals found in our current day products and their potential pollutive impacts on our health and environment are also not fully studied. In the next part of this series, we will then delve deeper into makeup today and its pollution impacts. 

References 

Brophy, M. (2022, June 12). Was queen Elizabeth I killed by her poisonous white makeup? Ancient Origins Reconstructing the story of humanity’s past. Retrieved April 12, 2023, from https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-famous-people/elizabeth-makeup-0016887 

Charleston, L.-J. (2019, May 10). The truth behind Queen Elizabeth’s white ‘clown face’ makeup. Medium. Retrieved April 12, 2023, from https://libbyjanecharleston.medium.com/the-truth-behind-queen-elizabeths-white-clown-face-makeup-c0507a178bd5 

Parry, C., & Eaton, J. (1991). Kohl: A lead-Hazardous Eye makeup from the Third World to the first world. Environmental Health Perspectives, 94, 121–123. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.94-1567936 

Seaver, C. (2023, January 29). Did makeup cause the death of Queen Elizabeth I of England? History Defined -. Retrieved April 12, 2023, from https://www.historydefined.net/did-makeup-cause-the-death-of-queen-elizabeth-i-of-england/ 

Stewart, S. (2019). “Gleaming and deadly white.” Toxicology in Antiquity, 301–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-815339-0.00020-2 

In the second of the series following Maria Kolesnikova’s fight against air pollution in Kyrgyzstan, we will first cover the background and severity of air pollution in the country. Next, we will then focus on MoveGreen’s (the NGO Maria Kolesnikova volunteers at) impact in tackling air pollution and what it means for equity. 

Kyrgyzstan as a nation, still remains largely reliant on coal especially in terms of heating (i.e. industrial and household included) as observed from the breakdown of coal usage below, with more than 50% going towards heating and energy generation (Figure 1) (Sabyrbekov & Ukueva, 2019). 

Figure 1. Breakdown of coal usage in Kyrgyzstan. Source: National Statistic Committee, 2015 taken from Sabyrbekov & Ukueva, 2019.

Furthermore, as a large proportion of households continue to use coal, it also signals the severity of household air pollution levels alongside ambient air pollution (Gemert et al., 2019). This is especially so in lower-income and rural households that still rely on coal as solid fuel for heating as they cannot afford to transition to cleaner sources of energy (Sabyrbekov & Ukueva, 2019). Even the wealthier households continue to use coal when using steam boilers for heating purposes (Sabyrbekov & Ukueva, 2019). Figure 2 highlights how the ambient air quality in Bishkek is alarmingly higher than WHO’s recommended PM2.5 levels (Dzushupov et al., 2022). 

Figure 2. Comparison of air quality in Bishkek based on PM2.5 (microgram/m3) data from 2019 to 2022 against WHO’s recommended 24-h level for PM2.5 Source: (Dzushupov et al., 2022)

Unfortunately, prior to Maria’s efforts in fighting against air pollution in 2016, there was a lack of access and collection to Kyrgyzstan’s air quality levels (United Nations Environment Programme, 2021). This served as a huge obstacle to her raising the issue of the hazardous air quality levels as she could not obtain data to support her case. Considering that the air quality levels in Figure 2 already seemed alarmingly high, these levels of air quality were “improved” levels since Maria’s strategy to tackle air pollution in Bishkek. 

So what did Maria Kolesnikova do to tackle this issue? 

She and her organisation, MoveGreen, decided to collect their own air quality data by installing sensors in school compounds and starting the movement called “School Breathes Easily” (United Nations Environment Programme, 2021). In raising the issue of such dangerous air quality at school compounds, Maria and MoveGreen finally gained the attention of relevant authorities and public visibility (UN Women, 2020). This resulted not only in policy changes but also a start in the transition away from coal usage towards renewables such as hydropower (United Nations Environment Programme, 2021). Furthermore, her efforts in pioneering this movement has also materialised in the form of live updates of Kyrgyzstan’s air quality on the MoveGreen website, to provide the public accessible and accurate data. 

What Maria did was inspiring because of how she needed to fight for her own voice to be heard, but more importantly because of what she did to improve the air quality across the country. While it may seem that making the poor air quality levels near school compounds was a purely strategic move, it also served to signal how she wanted to first help a largely marginalised yet vulnerable group in improving their air quality. In advocating for these school-going children first, it highlighted her efforts to provide aid for these children who were unevenly impacted by poor air quality and who did not have the resources or power to help themselves. While the blog entries the past few weeks mainly focused on how women have been unfairly impacted and seemingly helpless in the face of environmental pollution, I hope that this series on Maria Kolesnikova can provide a motivational perspective in how women can also be the voice in sparking a change. 

References 

Sabyrbekov, R., & Ukueva, N. (2019). Transitions from dirty to clean energy in low-income countries: Insights from Kyrgyzstan. Central Asian Survey, 38(2), 255–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634937.2019.1605976 

Gemert, F. van, Jong, C. de, Kirenga, B., Musinguzi, P., Buteme, S., Sooronbaev, T., Tabyshova, A., Emilov, B., Mademilov, M., An, P. L., Quynh, N. N., Dang, T. N., Hong, L. H., Chartier, R., Brakema, E. A., van Boven, J. F., Kocks, J., Nantanda, R., Katagira, W., … de Sousa, J. C. (2019). Effects and acceptability of implementing improved cookstoves and heaters to reduce household air pollution: A fresh air study. Npj Primary Care Respiratory Medicine, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41533-019-0144-8 

Dzushupov, K. O., Buban, J. M., Aidaraliev, A. A., Ahmadi, A., Chahal, P., Ibrahim, M., Lin, X., & Kouwenhoven, M. B. (2022). Air pollution in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan: Driving factors and state response. Public Health Challenges, 1(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/puh2.22 

United Nations Environment Programme. (2021). Maria Kolesnikova. Champions of the Earth. Retrieved April 4, 2023, from https://www.unep.org/championsofearth/laureates/2021/maria-kolesnikova 

UN Women. (2020). Maria Kolesnikova: An activist from Kyrgyzstan leading the eco-movement and spreading green values. UN Women – Headquarters. Retrieved April 4, 2023, from https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2020/4/feature-maria-kolesnikova-an-activist-from-kyrgyzstan-leading-the-eco-movement 

In lieu of International Women’s Day last Wednesday, I will cover the effort of Maria Kolesnikova in significantly improving the air quality of two cities while having to go against patriarchal norms. 

This year’s theme for International Women’s Day is #EmbraceEquity which highlights how providing everyone with equal opportunities is simply not good enough (International Women’s Day, 2023).

Source: Equity Tool (n.d.) https://www.equitytool.org/equity/

This image clearly highlights the difference between aiming for equality versus equity. In the case of equality, providing everyone with the same opportunity does not necessarily benefit them because not everyone has the same original standing ground. The person in the wheelchair will not benefit from the box as a stepping stool because he or she cannot utilise it. With equity, the differences between each person is recognised, such that the shorter girl is given more boxes and the person with the wheelchair would benefit more from a ramp than just a box. All 3 parties are then provided the help they need to reach the same level. 

So what did Maria Kolesnikova do and what does it mean in terms of striving towards equity? 

Firstly, the patriarchal nature of Kyrgyzstan must be established. The state remains largely patriarchal, in terms of the silencing of women’s voices in public to the extent of violence against feminist activism in 2020 (Suyarkulova, 2020). Furthermore, even the bodies of women in Kyrgyzstan, from their dressing down to their virginity, still remain governed by patriarchal notions (Suyarkulova, 2016; Kim, 2020). This clearly signals how women and their bodies are still controlled by the patriarchal state and society, in which uneven power relations are continually reinforced and women are generally disempowered.

Knowing the everyday pressures that Maria Kolesnikova faces as a woman in Kyrgyzstan, we can then better understand why her actions were so impressive. In 2016, Maria became aware of the severity of the air pollution in her city, Bishkek, and wanted to do something about it (United Nations Environmental Programme, n.d.). 

Source: National Democratic Institute, 2021. https://www.ndi.org/our-stories/combating-air-pollution-kyrgyzstan

According to Maria, “Bishkek was just covered in this blanket of grey. We didn’t know what to call it; what we knew was that it was really bad.” (United Nations Environmental Programme, n.d.). This is clearly observed in the image above, where the layer of smog settling over the city is extremely thick to the point of opacity. 

In the next post, we will delve deeper into the air pollution in Bishkek alongside what Maria Kolesnikova did to tackle the severity of this issue. More importantly, the next post will also signal the importance in recognising the need to strive for equity rather than just equality. 

References 

International Women’s Day. (2023). International Women’s day 2023 campaign theme: #EmbraceEquity. International Women’s Day. Retrieved March 18, 2023, from https://www.internationalwomensday.com/Theme 

Kim, E. (2020). Re-feminizing the post-soviet women: Identity, politics and virginity ceremonies in contemporary Kyrgyzstan. Journal of Gender Studies, 29(6), 706–716. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2020.1758043 

Suyarkulova, M. (2020, April 2). “Your traditions, our blood!”: The struggle against patriarchal violence in Kyrgyzstan. openDemocracy. Retrieved March 18, 2023, from https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/your-traditions-our-blood-the-struggle-against-patriarchal-violence-in-kyrgyzstan/ 

Suyarkulova, M. (2016). Fashioning the nation: Gender and politics of dress in contemporary Kyrgyzstan. Nationalities Papers, 44(2), 247–265. https://doi.org/10.1080/00905992.2016.1145200 

United Nations Environment Programme. (n.d.). Maria Kolesnikova. Champions of the Earth. Retrieved March 18, 2023, from https://www.unep.org/championsofearth/laureates/2021/maria-kolesnikova

In the previous entry, the environmental and health impacts of leather tanning as a largely male-dominated industry was highlighted. This entry will then focus on the inequality experienced by men in the leather tanning industry as a result of the intersectionality between gender, class and income. 

First and foremost, masculinities must be established as socially constructed and fluid (Kimmel, 2001). The fluid and multiple nature of masculinities highlight why it is plural – masculinities, as opposed to just masculinity alluding to a singular nature (Kimmel, 2001).

Figure 1. Hegemonic masculinity (as strong and superior) VS alternative masculinities (as weak and inferior)
Source: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.meme-arsenal.com%2Fen%2Fcreate%2Fmeme%2F4761216&psig=AOvVaw1vlVF4XwipslkRukuPeIj1&ust=1678006708930000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CBAQjRxqFwoTCPCzoqD0wf0CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAJ

However, despite the fluidity of masculinities recognised within research, a hegemonic masculinity is observed as the dominant or superior form across several cultures and societies (Figure 1) (Connell and Messerschmidt, 2005). In this context, hegemonic masculinity is materialised in the form of an authoritative and strong male figure, often perceived to be objective, “tough”, or for lack of a better term, “macho” (Connell and Messerschmidt, 2005). 

Not only is the leather tanning industry male-dominated, the skillset is often passed down within the male-lineage across generations. How does hegemonic masculinity then impact this industry as a largely male-dominated one? 

Men in male-dominated industries are often more susceptible to physical-related occupational risks due to normalised expectations that men are supposed to be fearless in the face of danger (Stergiou-Kita et al., 2015). Furthermore, these men are then less likely to reach out for help as they feel pressured to put on a resilient front to protect their masculinity (Beagan & Saunders, 2011). Apart from the policing of one’s own behaviour, these men are further marginalised by their limited access to aid as society also neglects their need for it (Stergiou-Kita et al., 2015). Translating this into the leather-tanning industry, it is unsurprising that the hazardous nature of the job is often overlooked. Moreover, as the industry is contained within the male lineage, it is unlikely that men will speak up or break out of it to maintain their masculine pride (Gebremichael, 2016). 

Having said that, the leather tanning industry is largely constituted by men from lower class and lower income backgrounds. In India, the men in this line of work are often from the lower castes (Kapoor, 2021). Due to the nature of the job, the stench from working in the tannery also caused others to associate tanning as an undesirable occupation, where these men face open discrimination due to the odour (Kapoor, 2021). In order to combat the stench of their “polluted bodies”, showers were then built to allow them to bathe before leaving the tannery (Kapoor, 2021). This highlights the irony behind the tanning industry that despite its labour-intensive nature making it “masculine”, these men also face prejudice due to its “dirty” association. 

As we view leather products as a luxury good and as an item of prestige, we often neglect the chain of work that brought these products into our malls. Which is why I would like to bring up the importance of gendered analysis once again. While “gender” often brings to mind the inequality faced by women (which is true), we often forget about how these gender roles impact men as well. Furthermore, men also face complexity in their inequality when class and income are put into play. This is why I chose to explore the leather tanning industry to unearth the array of impacts experienced by the male workers and hopefully this series has been eye-opening for you as well. 

References 

Beagan, B., & Saunders, S. (2005). Occupations of masculinity: Producing gender through what men do and don’t do. Journal of Occupational Science, 12(3), 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2005.9686559 

Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity. Gender & Society, 19(6), 829–859. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639 

Gebremichael, B. (2016). Traditional Leather Processing, production and marketing in Amhara Regional State of Ethiopia. OALib, 03(12), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1102751 

Kapoor, S. (2021). The violence of odors: Sensory politics of caste in a leather tannery. The Senses and Society, 16(2), 164–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/17458927.2021.1876365 

Kimmel, M. (2001). Masculinities and Femininities. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 9318–9321. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/03977-2 

Stergiou-Kita, M., Mansfield, E., Bezo, R., Colantonio, A., Garritano, E., Lafrance, M., Lewko, J., Mantis, S., Moody, J., Power, N., Theberge, N., Westwood, E., & Travers, K. (2015). Danger zone: Men, masculinity and occupational health and safety in high risk occupations. Safety Science, 80, 213–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2015.07.029 

During the lecture on the normalisation of pollution, Prof. Taylor brought up the example of the leather tanning industry through this video which showcased the horrid working conditions of the industry (Figure 1). The male workers were subjected to harsh chemicals and the stench of pigeon poop, which one described as “suffocating”, in order to soften the leather to a suitable level throughout the tanning process (National Geographic, 2013). Furthermore, they only earned a measly $2 dollars a day as a beginner, and $5 if they were good at their craft (National Geographic, 2013).

Figure 1. Leather tanneries in Italy. Source: Labour Behind the Label, 2016. https://labourbehindthelabel.org/a-tough-story-of-leather/

Further research also highlights the environmentally pollutive impacts of the leather tanneries, resulting in increasingly toxic water qualities in various water bodies, such as nearby rivers, lakes and even groundwater sources (Borrely et al., 2018). This has led to harmful impacts on the ecosystems and organisms in the respective water bodies, where the protective systems of marine life are compromised while marine flora face decreased photosynthetic rates due to toxic water quality levels (Borrely et al., 2018). 

The toxicity of the wastewater stem from the chemicals within it, such as chromium, sulphides, acids and even arsenic (Gallagher, 2014; PETA, 2022). Unfortunately, these chemicals possess carcinogenic properties and the male workers face increased risk of lung, pancreatic and skin cancer, such as melanoma (Rastogi et al., 2007). Male workers who had prolonged exposure to the chemicals also found that they experienced skin discolouration, where the skin was turned white (Figure 2, Gallagher, 2014). 

Figure 2. Skin discolouration faced by male workers in leather tanneries in India. Source: Gallagher, 2014. https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/india-toxic-price-leather

Considering the severe impacts of the tanning industry, not just on the environment but on the people involved, why are these issues not brought to light? More on the social impacts within the male-dominated leather industry will be covered in the next post. 

References 

Borrely, S. I., Rosa, J. M., Boiani, N. F., Garcia, V. S. G., & Sousa, A. L. (2018). Emerging pollutants, related toxicity, and water quality decreasing: Tannery, textile, and pharmaceuticals load pollutants. Biology, Engineering and Medicine, 3(6). https://doi.org/10.15761/bem.1000157 

Gallagher, S. (2014). India: The toxic price of leather. Pulitzer Center. Retrieved February 17, 2023, from https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/india-toxic-price-leather 

National Geographic (Director). (2013). The Foul, Fascinating World of Tanning Skins | National Geographic [Film]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmN_2VXY23M

PETA [People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]. (2022). Environmental hazards of leather. PETA. Retrieved February 17, 2023, from https://www.peta.org/issues/animals-used-for-clothing/leather-industry/leather-environmental-hazards/ 

Rastogi, S. K., Kesavachandran, C., Mahdi, F., & Pandey, A. (2007). Occupational cancers in Leather Tanning Industries: A short review. Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 11(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5278.32456 

WHO has once again highlighted that a significant number of the world population, at 99%, are faced with polluted air that is beyond the accepted air quality limits (United Nations, 2022). This is clearly mapped out in Figure 1, where in most regions, 100% of the population is exposed to air pollution levels above WHO guidelines. 

Figure 1. World map of the regions exposed to air pollution exceeding WHO guidelines. Source: Brauer et al., (2017) in Ritchie and Roser (2022). 

This may come as a shock to some people, as it did for me, to see that many countries with visibly “clean” air were included in the map. Most people would often classify pollution as severe if it were clearly visible, in the form of smog. However, this video by the Environmental Defense Fund turns the “invisible” air pollution visible, highlighting the lasting impacts of being exposed to air pollution in everyday life (2021). 

As seen from the video, outdoor air pollution not only increases health risk for diseases such as stroke, lung cancer and heart disease, it can also result in increased pregnancy risks in women (WHO, 2022). These risks not only impact the baby, it also results in increased health risk of the pregnant person (Villines, 2020). The pregnant person would then have an increased risk of miscarriages, diabetes and high blood pressure, while the foetus may face low birth weight and even stillbirth (Shetty, 2022). Unfortunately, these health impacts on the baby and the mother could then result in mental health issues, such as depression (Shetty, 2022). Furthermore, the long-term exposure to air pollutants could also reduce fertility rates of women (Miguel et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2021). 

Aside from the biological risks on women, outdoor air pollution could also be reinforced by gender norms. Ferrant et al. (2014) from OECD highlight that unpaid care work is still viewed as the responsibility of women in many parts of the world. In the case where outdoor air pollution levels are above safety levels, young children and elderly who are more vulnerable to such conditions are encouraged to stay at home or require care due to respiratory health symptoms (Montt, 2018). The resulting care burden is then left on women in the family to take on, which reduces their ability to work in their formal paid labour. Furthermore, Montt (2018) highlights that outdoor air pollution only has a significant impact on formal paid labour for women with children. 

These two impacts of outdoor air pollution on women not only highlight the importance but also the distinction between sex-based and gender-based analysis in pollution impacts. Both types of analysis are important to ensure that the inequality faced by women are uncovered such that effective policy reforms can be made. 

References 

Environmental Defense Fund (Director). (2021). Watch invisible air pollution turn visible [Film]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GCBGIPsB-qw

Ferrant, G., Pesando, L. M., & Nowacka, K. (2014). Unpaid Care Work: The missing link in the analysis of gender gaps in labour outcomes. OECD Development Centre. https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/Unpaid_care_work.pdf

Kim, H., Choe, SA., Kim, OJ. et al. Outdoor air pollution and diminished ovarian reserve among infertile Korean women. Environ Health Prev Med 26, 20 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-021-00942-4 

Montt, G. Too polluted to work? The gendered correlates of air pollution on hours worked. IZA J Labor Econ 7, 7 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40172-018-0067-6 

Shetty, D. (2022, April 4). Air Pollution Is Worsening Reproductive Health Outcomes For Women. Health Policy Watch. Retrieved February 9, 2023, from https://healthpolicy-watch.news/air-pollution-reproductive-health-women/

United Nations. (2022, April 4). Almost everyone now breathing polluted air, warns WHO. UN News. Retrieved February 9, 2023, from https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/04/1115492

Villines, Z. (2020, October 29). Air pollution and pregnancy outcomes: What are the effects? Medical News Today. Retrieved February 9, 2023, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/air-pollution-and-pregnancy-outcomes#pregnancy-outcomes

Vizcaíno, M. A. C., González-Comadran, M., & Jacquemin, B. (2016). Outdoor air pollution and human infertility: A systematic review. Fertility and Sterility, 106(4), 897-904.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.07.1110

World Health Organisation [WHO]. (2022, December 19). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. World Health Organization (WHO). Retrieved February 9, 2023, from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health

Figure 1. Meme of a corporate lady assuming gender and sex are the same. Source: YAF, 2019.

“Gender and sex are basically the same, they just tell you if you are male or female.” 

I am fairly sure many of us have heard something along these lines before, where people often assume gender and sex are the same thing and find the distinction between the two insignificant. 

However, unlike the corporate lady in the meme (Figure 1), we will learn the difference between the two terms and how this distinction has a key role to play in pollution studies. 

Figure 2. Infographic on the difference between gender and sex. Source: Canadian Institute of Health Research, 2020.

This infographic by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (2020) provides a clear explanation on the distinction between gender and sex, where gender is underpinned by socially constructed norms while sex relates to biological differences (Figure 2). For example, biological differences in terms of sex could relate to how male and females differ in terms of lung function when faced with air pollution (Clougherty, 2009). On the flip side, gendered analysis would point towards variations in activity patterns or spaces occupied for different periods of time, as seen in the previous post on indoor air pollution (Clougherty, 2009). The inclusion of a gendered based analysis goes beyond the binary of male and female, which is often reinforced by analysis that focus on biological difference (Bolte et al., 2019). 

But what does it really mean to include gender in pollution studies? 

The research paper by Dębiak et al. (2019) brings up the importance of accounting for intersectionality and everyday lived experiences in the study. Intersectionality refers to the complex relationship across various social categories, such as gender, race, class, age and more, where these categories are non-additive (Valentine, 2007). For example, the lived experiences of women in lower-income countries would differ from those who lived in higher income countries. This is once again observed in the previous post, where women in lower income-countries suffered from the severe effects of indoor air pollution due to the inability to afford alternative forms of fuel for household chores, while subjected to gendered norms that women remain the caretakers in the home space. In contrast, women in higher income countries who can afford alternative forms of fuel, do not suffer from the same impacts of indoor air pollution. 

Hopefully, the future blog posts will provide further insight into how gendered analysis can provide a deeper and more accurate representation of the impacts of pollution on varying groups of people. 

Reference 

Bolte, G., Kraus, U., Jacke, K., Groth, K., Dandolo, L., Palm, K., Kolossa-Gehring, M., Debiak, M., & Schneider, A. (2019). New approaches for integrating sex/gender into Environmental Health Research. Environmental Epidemiology, 3, 33. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ee9.0000605988.73810.8f 

Canadian Institutes of Health Research. (2020). What is gender? What is sex? CIHR. Retrieved January 30, 2023, from https://cihr-irsc.gc.ca/e/48642.html 

Clougherty, J. E. (2010). A growing role for gender analysis in Air Pollution Epidemiology. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118(2), 167–176. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0900994 

Dębiak, M., Groth, K., Kolossa-Gehring, M., Sauer, A., Tobollik, M., & Wintermeyer, D. (2019). Sex and gender approaches in environmental health research: Two exemplary case studies of the German Environment Agency. Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, 44(2), 114–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/03080188.2019.1603860 

Valentine, G. (2007). Theorizing and researching intersectionality: A challenge for feminist geography*. The Professional Geographer, 59(1), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9272.2007.00587.x 

Oftentimes, when we think about air pollution, we assume that it relates to poorer air quality outside the home or an enclosed building. Meanwhile, the home is viewed as a place of respite and comfort, away from the pollution outside.

Unfortunately, studies have highlighted the presence of indoor air pollution (IAP) or household air pollution (HAP), in the form of dust and gases in the air within buildings that pose a risk to human health (British Lung Foundation, 2021). In 2020, indoor air pollution resulted in 3.2 million deaths and this stemmed from the usage of fuels such as kerosene, coal or forms of biomass from animal dung or wood over open fires within the home (WHO, 2022) (Figure 1). 

Figure 1. Image of a woman cooking indoors using solid fuels. Source: Corbis (2011) https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2811%2960626-0/fulltext

However, Dida et al. (2022) highlight that women are disproportionately impacted as observed from a 50% higher death rate than men. Considering that indoor air pollution remains as one of the leading causes of death in 2019, this form of pollution then places a large number of women at risk annually (Ritchie and Roser, 2022). 

This begs the question of how this pervasive form of pollution has claimed the lives of so many women? The uneven impact of indoor air pollution on women is largely underpinned by the gendered division of household labour, where women are expected to carry out unpaid care work, such as cooking the cleaning within the house (Ferrant et al., 2014). This leaves women in constant close proximity to the gases and dust released from the burning of cooking fuels as they are confined within the domestic space (Dida et al., 2022). The long term exposure would result in life-threatening diseases, such as stroke, lung cancer and heart disease (Soroptimist International, 2019). This is compounded by the fact that the majority of the households impacted by this issue are located in rural areas within developing countries (Figure 2), resulting in the lack of financial power to switch to alternative cooking methods (Ritchie and Roser, 2022). 

Figure 2. Global distribution of the death rates from indoor air pollution in 2019 with higher rates observed in the African and Asian developing regions. Source: IHME, Global Burden of Disease (2019) https://ourworldindata.org/indoor-air-pollution

This example alone highlights the importance in viewing pollution issues from a gendered lens to uncover the unequal impacts faced by women globally. While pollution itself could result in harmful impacts on humans and the environment in general, teasing out the nuances and unevenness within these impacts could shed light on the often marginalised groups. Hence, this blog aims to explore issues pertaining to pollution through a gendered lens to unearth overlooked inequalities. 

Reference 

British Lung Foundation. (2021). What is indoor air pollution? . Asthma + Lung UK. Retrieved January 21, 2023, from https://www.blf.org.uk/support-for-you/indoor-air-pollution/about-indoor-air-pollution#:~:text=Indoor%20air%20pollution%20is%20dust,of%20heart%20disease%20and%20stroke 

Dida, G. O., Lutta, P. O., Abuom, P. O., Mestrovic, T., & Anyona, D. N. (2022). Factors predisposing women and children to indoor air pollution in rural villages, Western Kenya. Archives of Public Health, 80(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13690-022-00791-9 

Ferrant, G., Pesando, L. M., & Nowacka, K. (2014). Unpaid Care Work: The missing link in the analysis of gender gaps in labour outcomes. OECD Development Centre . https://doi.org/https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/Unpaid_care_work.pdf 

Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2022). Indoor Air Pollution. Our World in Data. Retrieved January 21, 2023, from https://ourworldindata.org/indoor-air-pollution#citation 

Soroptimist International. (2019). Household air pollution, a gender issue. Soroptimist International. Retrieved January 21, 2023, from https://www.soroptimistinternational.org/household-air-pollution-a-gender-issue/ 

WHO (World Health Organisation). (2022). Household air pollution. World Health Organisation. Retrieved January 21, 2023, from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health