WHO has once again highlighted that a significant number of the world population, at 99%, are faced with polluted air that is beyond the accepted air quality limits (United Nations, 2022). This is clearly mapped out in Figure 1, where in most regions, 100% of the population is exposed to air pollution levels above WHO guidelines.
Figure 1. World map of the regions exposed to air pollution exceeding WHO guidelines. Source: Brauer et al., (2017) in Ritchie and Roser (2022).
This may come as a shock to some people, as it did for me, to see that many countries with visibly “clean” air were included in the map. Most people would often classify pollution as severe if it were clearly visible, in the form of smog. However, this video by the Environmental Defense Fund turns the “invisible” air pollution visible, highlighting the lasting impacts of being exposed to air pollution in everyday life (2021).
As seen from the video, outdoor air pollution not only increases health risk for diseases such as stroke, lung cancer and heart disease, it can also result in increased pregnancy risks in women (WHO, 2022). These risks not only impact the baby, it also results in increased health risk of the pregnant person (Villines, 2020). The pregnant person would then have an increased risk of miscarriages, diabetes and high blood pressure, while the foetus may face low birth weight and even stillbirth (Shetty, 2022). Unfortunately, these health impacts on the baby and the mother could then result in mental health issues, such as depression (Shetty, 2022). Furthermore, the long-term exposure to air pollutants could also reduce fertility rates of women (Miguel et al., 2016; Kim et al., 2021).
Aside from the biological risks on women, outdoor air pollution could also be reinforced by gender norms. Ferrant et al. (2014) from OECD highlight that unpaid care work is still viewed as the responsibility of women in many parts of the world. In the case where outdoor air pollution levels are above safety levels, young children and elderly who are more vulnerable to such conditions are encouraged to stay at home or require care due to respiratory health symptoms (Montt, 2018). The resulting care burden is then left on women in the family to take on, which reduces their ability to work in their formal paid labour. Furthermore, Montt (2018) highlights that outdoor air pollution only has a significant impact on formal paid labour for women with children.
These two impacts of outdoor air pollution on women not only highlight the importance but also the distinction between sex-based and gender-based analysis in pollution impacts. Both types of analysis are important to ensure that the inequality faced by women are uncovered such that effective policy reforms can be made.
References
Environmental Defense Fund (Director). (2021). Watch invisible air pollution turn visible [Film]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GCBGIPsB-qw
Ferrant, G., Pesando, L. M., & Nowacka, K. (2014). Unpaid Care Work: The missing link in the analysis of gender gaps in labour outcomes. OECD Development Centre. https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/Unpaid_care_work.pdf
Kim, H., Choe, SA., Kim, OJ. et al. Outdoor air pollution and diminished ovarian reserve among infertile Korean women. Environ Health Prev Med 26, 20 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-021-00942-4
Montt, G. Too polluted to work? The gendered correlates of air pollution on hours worked. IZA J Labor Econ 7, 7 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40172-018-0067-6
Shetty, D. (2022, April 4). Air Pollution Is Worsening Reproductive Health Outcomes For Women. Health Policy Watch. Retrieved February 9, 2023, from https://healthpolicy-watch.news/air-pollution-reproductive-health-women/
United Nations. (2022, April 4). Almost everyone now breathing polluted air, warns WHO. UN News. Retrieved February 9, 2023, from https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/04/1115492
Villines, Z. (2020, October 29). Air pollution and pregnancy outcomes: What are the effects? Medical News Today. Retrieved February 9, 2023, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/air-pollution-and-pregnancy-outcomes#pregnancy-outcomes
Vizcaíno, M. A. C., González-Comadran, M., & Jacquemin, B. (2016). Outdoor air pollution and human infertility: A systematic review. Fertility and Sterility, 106(4), 897-904.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.07.1110
World Health Organisation [WHO]. (2022, December 19). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. World Health Organization (WHO). Retrieved February 9, 2023, from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health