impacts – Quit Playing Games (With Our Earth)

April 7, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

Skyglow or skyfall? Shining a light on light pollution impacts at the Olympic Games (2)

Light pollution is perceived by many countries to be a happy problem. Much like how the invention of the light bulb was viewed as a breakthrough in modern technology, the flooding of bright lights amidst a dark sky is applauded as a milestone in economic development. Yet, things are rapidly changing amidst the emergence of long-term ecological impacts associated with artificial light overuse.

So, how does light pollution harm wildlife? The answer lies in the occurrence of skyglow, a phenomenon where artificial light projected into the sky is reflected by atmospheric matter, creating a bright halo (Ngarambe, Lim and Kim, 2018). As skyglow creates the illusion of a daytime-like sky, it can disrupt the migratory and feeding patterns of many wildlife species, particularly birds and bats as they are drawn to light (Chepesiuk, 2009). More worryingly, skyglow does not only affect wildlife in the immediate region where light pollution is produced, but can spread to nearly 64 kilometres away. This reinforces the growing severity of light pollution, and the pressing need to regulate it at the Olympic Games where artificial light use is widespread.

The occurrence of skyglow has significantly altered the migratory patterns of nocturnal birds, leading to high frequencies of collisions into light-emitting skyscrapers (Masterson, 2018)

While studies on the impact of Olympic light pollution on wildlife behaviour are limited as such behaviour is shaped by many environmental factors, it remains fair to argue that the Olympic Games have adverse ecological impacts. Shortly after the extravagant 2012 London Olympic Games were held, the protected Myotis lucifugus and Eptesicus fuscus bat species faced drastic population declines between 41 to 96% (Stone, Harris and Jones, 2015). This was attributed to the bats’ increased exposure to artificial light, which caused them to abandon their roosts and face predation (Stone, Harris and Jones, 2015). Similarly, the Turdus merula species of birds in England showed no signs of reproductive activity after being exposed to nighttime light, as they were under chronic stress (Dominoni, Quetting and Partecke, 2013). Therefore, while other factors such as noise and temperature could also have contributed to such phenomena, the role of sky glow — and the rapid increase in brightly-lit breeding grounds — is undeniable.

This does not mean that all hope is lost for wildlife and we will see skyfall, however. Certain host countries, such as China, have taken steps to mitigate light pollution at the Olympic Games. At the recent 2022 Beijing Winter Olympic Games, nighttime construction work near the biodiversity-rich Yanqing area was restricted to prevent illumination of natural habitats (Beijing 2022, n.d.). While such measures appear insignificant, they nonetheless help in reducing ecological damage caused by light pollution, and this constitutes a crucial first step in protecting wildlife species. More importantly, the intangible nature of light pollution makes it challenging to quantify the (potentially horrifying) extent of impacts, which reinforces the need to curb light pollution — and its associated impacts — as much as possible.

References

Beijing 2022. (n.d.). Beijing 2022 Pre-Games Sustainability Report [Press release]. https://stillmed.olympics.com/media/Documents/Olympic-Games/Beijing-2022/Sustainability/Beijing-2022-Pre-Games-Sustainability-Report.pdf

Chepesiuk, R. (2009). Missing the dark: health effects of light pollution. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(1). https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.117-a20

Dominoni, D. M., Quetting, M., & Partecke, J. (2013). Long-term effects of chronic light pollution on seasonal functions of European blackbirds (Turdus merula). PLoS One, 8(12), e85069. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0085069

Masterson, A. (2018). Birds yearn for the bright lights of cities [Online image]. Cosmos Magazine. https://cosmosmagazine.com/nature/birds/birds-yearn-for-the-bright-lights-of-cities/

Ngarambe, J., Lim, H. S., & Kim, G. (2018). Light pollution: is there an environmental Kuznets curve?. Sustainable cities and society, 42, 337-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.07.018

Stone, E. L., Harris, S., & Jones, G. (2015). Impacts of artificial lighting on bats: a review of challenges and solutions. Mammalian Biology, 80(3), 213-219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2015.02.004

April 4, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

Skyglow or skyfall? Shining a light on light pollution impacts at the Olympic Games (1)

When we talk about the types of pollution affecting the Olympic Games, most of us might think of air and water pollution, and for good reason. After all, pollutants are most commonly transported through air and water mediums, resulting in their impacts being easily observed when contaminated air and water are consumed. Similarly, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2021) seemingly hints toward air and water pollution when defining pollutants as substances that “adversely affect the usefulness of a resource or the health of humans, animals or ecosystems”.

However, such perceptions of pollution are restrictive, and overlook the impact that intangible but pervasive entities — such as light — have on biota. In recent years, light pollution has been increasingly identified as one of the most harmful types of pollution, as it not only worsens sleep patterns, but also disrupts wildlife behaviour (Chepesiuk, 2009). It has also become increasingly common amidst the general rise in affluence levels and construction of brightly-lit cityscapes worldwide (Chepesiuk, 2009).

Light pollution has become increasingly pervasive, amidst the excessive use of artificial lighting to light up urban centres and homes (Coetzee, 2019)

It is thus of little wonder that the Olympic Games — being an internationally-recognised mega-event that seeks to impress through the use of grand infrastructure and spectacular displays — is a major producer of light pollution. From the launching of fireworks to end the Olympic Games on a high, to the liberal use of electric lights to illuminate venues and optimise spectator experience, artificial light is found almost everywhere. This is unfortunately to the point that it overwhelms the visual senses and eventually, the human brain.

A case in point would be the 2012 London Olympic Games, which was hailed as one of the most “thoughtfully planned” but light-intensive Olympic Games in history. As reported by LEDs Magazine (2012), nearly 70000 LED modules were positioned beside spectator seats, 14000 lamps were located within the Olympic Stadium. This was not inclusive of the additional 25000 LED modules used for nighttime lighting at the Olympic Park (LEDs Magazine, 2012). While the use of such light was arguably necessary as it made holding competitions at night possible, their excessive use had brought about sleep disorders amongst the general population. 67% of adults reported disrupted sleep while 31% suffered from insomnia, as their overexposure to artificial light had led to decreasing pineal melatonin production and control over circadian rhythms (Falchi et al., 2011). In other words, the retina was increasingly hit by light photons, causing the mind to be overstimulated (Chepesiuk, 2009).

The massive numbers of LED modules and lamps used at the 2012 London Olympic Games was associated with increasing sleep disorder rates amongst British adults (Peralta, 2012)

Hence, it is clear that light pollution has adverse long-term impacts on human health that — rather interestingly — do not discriminate on the basis of socioeconomic status and race. Rather, light pollution is most commonly experienced in developed countries (Gallaway, Olsen and Mitchell, 2010), where the use of artificial light for urban landscapes is regarded as a hallmark of economic progress. Unfortunately, the same does not apply for wildlife, with both sea and land species being equally vulnerable to light pollution impacts. With that, do look out for my next post on this dark issue!

References

Chepesiuk, R. (2009). Missing the dark: health effects of light pollution. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(1). https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.117-a20

Coetzee, B. (2019). Light pollution: the dark side of keeping the lights on [Online image]. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/light-pollution-the-dark-side-of-keeping-the-lights-on-113489

Falchi, F., Cinzano, P., Elvidge, C. D., Keith, D. M., & Haim, A. (2011). Limiting the impact of light pollution on human health, environment and stellar visibility. Journal of environmental management, 92(10), 2714-2722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.06.029

Gallaway, T., Olsen, R. N., & Mitchell, D. M. (2010). The economics of global light pollution. Ecological economics, 69(3), 658-665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.10.003

LEDs Magazine. (2012, August). LED lighting plays prominent role in Olympic Games. LEDs Magazine. https://www.ledsmagazine.com/leds-ssl-design/driver-ics/article/16698368/led-lighting-plays-prominent-role-in-olympic-games

Peralta, E. (2012). As It Happened: The London Olympics’ Opening Ceremony [Online image]. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetorch/2012/07/27/157501561/live-blog-the-opening-ceremony

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2021, July 15). Report on the Environment Glossary. https://www.epa.gov/report-environment/roe-glossary#:~:text=into%20a%20waterway.-,pollutant%3A,substances%20introduced%20by%20human%20activities.

March 18, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

Blooming algae problem caused by water pollution stirs trouble for Olympic teams (1)

Water pollution need not take its form in unsightly swathes of untreated waste. Sometimes, it can manifest in harmful algal blooms (HABs), whose cheery green hues belie their toxic and troublesome nature.

Normally, algae is harmless, and is integral to the aquatic ecosystem as it forms the base of the food chain (Glibert, 2014). Yet, it can threaten aquatic species’ lifespans and human health when accumulated in large amounts (Fistarol et al., 2015). In the presence of untreated waste, such as organic matter or unused fertilisers containing reactive nitrogen and phosphorus (Hill, 2012), nutrients are abundant and absorbed by algae. This facilitates large-scale HAB formation, producing toxins that not only accumulate in seafood but also cause water contamination (Fistarol et al., 2015). HABs are hence considered to be water pollutants, as they alter water quality and spread at unmanageable rates characteristic of transboundary water pollution (Hill, 2012).

HABs are notorious for killing aquatic species and causing harm to human health by contaminating seafood (Davies, 2015)

Recently, HABs have entered the spotlight — not for causing fish kills and disrupting the global aquaculture industry (Glibert, 2014), but rather, the Olympic Games. Most notably, HABs of the Enteromorpha prolifera species were spotted at sailing venues in Qingdao (Glibert, 2014) leading up to the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. This was attributed to the widespread dumping of nitrogen-containing farming chemicals into inland lakes that eventually flowed into Qingdao’s Yellow Sea (Branigan, 2008), where sailing venues were located. Such HAB formation was not only problematic as the island-city’s famed pristine blue waters were stained a bright green, but also because the blanket of algae hindered sailboats’ movements. As reported by Glibert (2014), the scale of HAB growth amounted to a sizable 1900 square kilometres, with nearly one-third of the competition area being covered in algal bloom. This caused blockage to practice routes while preventing Olympic athletes from sailing through the waters smoothly, thus compromising the efficacy of their training. As British windsurfer Bryony Shaw had then cautioned, “If [the algae] is still here in August [when we compete], it could be a real problem.”

Sailing venues in the Eastern Chinese city of Qingdao were plagued by HAB growth prior to the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, hampering Olympic sailors’ training (Barlow, 2008)

Although the thick algal mass was eventually cleared and Olympic sailing events could proceed as planned, questions remained as to whether HAB formation could be more effectively mitigated. This was particularly of interest to aspiring host cities with tropical climates, as the fertilising effect of nitrogen and phosphorus was reportedly higher in warm regions (Marris, 2008). The following posts will hence evaluate the mitigation strategies adopted during the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games and whether they can be replicated elsewhere, so stay tuned!

References

Barlow, K. (2008). Algae swamps Olympic sailing city [Online image]. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-06-28/algae-outbreak-hampers-olympic-sailing-preparations/2487806

Branigan, T. (2008, June 30). Chinese race to clear algae from Olympic sailing venue. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/jun/30/pollution.olympicgames2008

Davies, W. (2015). Tonnes of dead fish removed from Rio Olympic rowing venue [Online image]. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32345508

Fistarol, G. O., Coutinho, F. H., Moreira, A. P. B., Venas, T., Cánovas, A., de Paula Jr, S. E., … & Thompson, F. L. (2015). Environmental and sanitary conditions of Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro. Frontiers in microbiology, 6, 1232. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.01232

Glibert, P. M. (2014). Harmful Algal Blooms in Asia: an insidious and escalating water pollution phenomenon with effects on ecological and human health. ASIANetwork Exchange, 21(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.16995/ane.46

Hill, M. K. (2012). Water Pollution. In M. K. Hill (Ed.), Understanding Environmental Pollution (pp. 236-285). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511840654

Marris, E. (2008). Scientists identify algae that almost swamped the Olympics. Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2008.998

March 14, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to water pollution health effects

Remember the previous instalment of our ‘But we’re only human’ series, where we talked about the health impacts of air pollution on Olympic athletes? Today, we will be covering something similar for water pollution by drawing on two controversial case studies: the 2016 Rio and 2018 Pyeongchang Olympic Games.

Gastrointestinal illnesses are most commonly observed amongst water sports athletes, which is unsurprising as disease-causing microorganisms can easily enter the human body through the eyes or mouth, and are highly resistant (Staggemeier et al., 2017). This is especially so for enteric viruses such as rotavirus and adenovirus, which are found in untreated human sewage and notorious for their stability in the gastrointestinal tract (Staggemeier et al., 2017). In a study conducted by Bosch et al. (2008), 105 to 1013 enteric virus particles were detected per gram of stool amongst infected persons, reflecting their infectiousness and ability to resist antibodies. Therefore, while enteric viruses normally do not result in acute infection or mortality (Weidner and Sevier, 1996), they remain a cause for concern as they can persist for long durations and “easily knock athlete[s] out of competition”.

Enteric viruses are responsible for causing gastrointestinal illnesses amongst athletes, as they are often found in water contaminated by untreated sewage (Bosch, Pintó and Abad, 2006)

In fact, enteric viruses came under the spotlight at the 2016 Rio Olympic Games, where 13 American athletes fell ill with gastroenteritis-related symptoms including diarrhoea and vomiting after a test rowing event. According to the American team doctor, this could have occurred after water in the training venue dripped onto athletes’ water bottles, causing their drinking water to become contaminated. This was a sentiment shared by World Health Organisation officials, who classified Rio de Janeiro’s water quality as poor or very poor, and strongly urged local virologists to conduct testing for enteric viruses. While subsequent studies revealed that only 1% of competing athletes contracted gastroenteritis during the actual event (Soligard et al., 2017), the presence of infection nonetheless reflected that enteric viruses were a threat to human health.

Similarly, at the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games, two Swiss skiers — and 199 staff — were reported to have contracted norovirus. This was particularly worrying as norovirus, like other enteric viruses, was highly contagious with an infection rate of 1.6 to 3.7. As outlined by Cherabuddi (2018), norovirus can rapidly make its way onto surfaces and food, although it originates from contaminated water sources. Coupled with the use of closed areas for communal dining (Cherabuddi, 2018), this facilitated rapid rates of norovirus infection, with infected persons similarly experiencing symptoms of intestinal inflammation and fever.

After two Swiss skiers fell ill with the highly contagious norovirus at the 2018 Pyeongchang Olympic Games, officials quickly stepped up venue disinfection efforts (South China Morning Post, 2018)

Overall, it is evident that enteric viruses bring significant inconvenience, as they not only prevent Olympic athletes from performing their best, but are also difficult to guard against. This reinforces the importance of regulating point sources in a holistic manner, from improving household access to sewage treatment systems, to developing tools to monitor and optimise these management efforts (Eisenberg, Bartram and Wade, 2016). Only then can health risks associated with water pollution be minimised, without requiring additional resources for viral testing that potentially detract attention from routine monitoring and create a vicious cycle of worsening water pollution.

References

Bosch, A., Pintó, R.M., Abad, F.X. (2006). Survival and Transport of Enteric Viruses in the Environment. In S.M. Goyal (Ed.), Viruses in Foods (pp. 151-187). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29251-9_6

Bosch, A., Guix, S., Sano, D., & Pinto, R. M. (2008). New tools for the study and direct surveillance of viral pathogens in water. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 19(3), 295-301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2008.04.006

Cherabuddi, K. (2018, February 20). Why is there a norovirus outbreak at the Winter Olympics? 4 questions answered. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/why-is-there-a-norovirus-outbreak-at-the-winter-olympics-4-questions-answered-91886

Eisenberg, J. N., Bartram, J., & Wade, T. J. (2016). The water quality in Rio highlights the global public health concern over untreated sewage. Environmental Health Perspectives, 124(10), 180-181. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP662

Soligard, T., Steffen, K., Palmer, D., Alonso, J. M., Bahr, R., Lopes, A. D., … & Engebretsen, L. (2017). Sports injury and illness incidence in the Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic summer games: a prospective study of 11274 athletes from 207 countries. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(17), 1265-1271. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097956

South China Morning Post. (2018). Norovirus outbreak at Pyeongchang Winter Olympics has officials scrambling as local media frets [Online image]. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/sport/other-sport/article/2132404/norovirus-outbreak-pyeongchang-winter-olympics-has-officials

Staggemeier, R., Heck, T. M., Demoliner, M., Ritzel, R. G., Röhnelt, N. M., Girardi, V., … & Spilki, F. R. (2017). Enteric viruses and adenovirus diversity in waters from 2016 Olympic venues. Science of the Total Environment, 586, 304-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.223

Weidner, T. G., & Sevier, T. L. (1996). Sport, exercise, and the common cold. Journal of athletic training, 31(2), 154-159. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1318446/pdf/jathtrain00018-0060.pdf

February 20, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

Smoggy skies, foggier futures — The environmental injustice behind air pollution impacts (2)

Well-respected activist Martin Luther King Jr. had once remarked, “It really boils down to this: that all life is interrelated. We are all caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied into a single garment of destiny.” Perhaps the same can be said about air pollution at the Olympic Games — while its immediate impacts are confined to host cities, these impacts eventually snowball and transcend national boundaries. This interdependence between the local and global, then, is what explains the presence of environmental injustice globally. Similar to city-level environmental injustice where the marginalised are disproportionately affected by air pollution, developing countries are hit more severely by pollution-induced climate impacts.

Developing countries tend to bear the brunt of air pollution impacts, even though such pollution originates from mostly developed host cities (India Today, 2019)

But how exactly does localised air pollution extend to the global scale? The answer lies in the intensification of the greenhouse effect. When Olympic venues are constructed and urban traffic increases, massive amounts of radiation-trapping pollutants — particularly carbon dioxide — are emitted (Schmidt, 2020). This increase in global carbon footprint and trapping of longwave radiation not only raises global atmospheric temperatures, but also influences long-term rainfall availability (Kellogg and Schware, 2019). These climatic changes increase the likelihood of extreme weather events, which greatly devastate developing countries’ economies due to the lack of comprehensive mitigation measures (Kellogg and Schware, 2019).

While data on the exact climatic and socio-economic impact of Olympic-induced air pollution remains limited, it is fair to hypothesise that such pollution worsens environmental injustice. As mentioned previously, air pollution generated at the Olympic Games is inevitably significant, given the large scale of the event and its pollutive activities. In fact, according to Figure 1, new construction is one of the least sustainable but regularly occurring activities at the Olympic Games, with the second lowest sustainability score of 35. This, coupled with recurring incidents where extensive areas of carbon-absorbing vegetation are cut down for venue construction (Konstantaki and Wickens, 2010), reinforces the sheer amount of carbon being released throughout the Olympic Games. Therefore, it is possible that these localised carbon emissions accumulate, eventually altering global climate patterns while causing disproportionate economic damage to developing countries.

Figure 1: An infographic outlining the mean values of nine indicators used in assessing the sustainability of the Olympic Games, and the distribution of values. These indicators are scored from 0 to 100, with 0 meaning ‘least sustainable’ and 100 ‘most sustainable’ (Müller et al., 2021)

Therein lies the manifestation of environmental injustice, which is supported by Borunda’s (2019) findings on climate change-induced inequality. As per figure 2, most countries with high economic damage — who ironically generate the least carbon emissions — lie within the less developed Global South. Considering that these countries inherently suffer from climate vulnerability as they lack sufficient finances to invest in climate-resilient infrastructure, the occurrence of climatic impacts engenders the need for post-disaster relief and worsens their fiscal positions. This further compromises their climate vulnerability as they are unable to implement cost-intensive mitigation measures, creating a vicious cycle where these countries continually experience climate threats and environmental injustice.

Figure 2: A choropleth map illustrating the uneven impact of climate change on countries’ national economies (top) and the global distribution of carbon emissions per capita (bottom) (Borunda, 2019)

Admittedly, such environmental injustice can be lessened through supranational mutual aid programmes, where development agencies offer financial assistance to developing countries to tackle climate impacts. Nevertheless, such measures overlook the root cause of environmental injustice — the generation of pollution. Considering the potential for air pollutants to react with each other and develop into more hazardous secondary pollutants, it is hence crucial to minimise air pollution, especially at mega-events like the Olympic Games. Only then will we be one step closer to eradicating environmental injustice.

References

Borunda, A. (2019, April 23). Inequality is decreasing between countries—but climate change is slowing progress. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-economic-inequality-growing

India Today. (2019). 1 lakh children under 5 years of age die from air pollution in India every year: Study [Online image]. India Today. https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/latest-studies/story/air-pollution-india-deaths-children-five-years-report-centre-for-science-and-environment-1543779-2019-06-06

Kellogg, W. W., & Schware, R. (Eds.). (2019). Climate change and society: consequences of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429048739

Konstantaki, M., & Wickens, E. (2010). Residents’ perceptions of environmental and security issues at the 2012 London Olympic Games. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 15(4), 337-357. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2010.533921

Müller, M., Wolfe, S. D., Gaffney, C., Gogishvili, D., Hug, M., & Leick, A. (2021). An evaluation of the sustainability of the Olympic Games. Nature sustainability, 4(4), 340-348. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00696-5

Schmidt, R. (2020). The carbon footprint of the games–International climate change law and the Olympics. American Journal of International Law, 114, 362-367. https://doi.org/10.1017/aju.2020.71

February 15, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

Smoggy skies, foggier futures — The environmental injustice behind air pollution impacts (1)

To many of us, there is nothing more gratifying than watching our favourite athletes push their limits and fight for victory at the Olympic Games. After all, it is these magical moments that encapsulate what the Olympic Games is symbolic of — glory, national pride and resilience. Yet, it is also in these very moments of celebration that we forget about those who are negatively and disproportionately impacted by the Olympic Games. This is especially so for air pollution, where we frequently overlook how residents of host cities — especially the marginalised — are widely exposed to pollutants, causing long-term health and socio-economic problems.

Therein lies the issue of environmental injustice, where disadvantaged societal groups are forced to bear the “external costs of [economic] development” (Jerrett, 2009, p. 231). Such environmental injustice inherent to Olympic air pollution is most prominent at the city level, where socioeconomically vulnerable poor and minority communities inevitably face air pollution. Such exposure not only manifests from the construction of Olympic venues near marginalised communities, who lack the bargaining power to protest (Pulido, 2017), but also these communities’ reliance on public transport that increases their exposure to traffic emissions (Pratt et al., 2015).

Tokyo residents in protest against the 2020 Olympic Games, which they argue will worsen environmental inequalities for the city’s poor (Burack, 2021)

However, you might still be wondering why environmental injustice poses a big problem for marginalised residents of host cities, apart from making them more susceptible to chronic respiratory illnesses. Well, it is precisely this likelihood of falling ill that engenders further socio-economic issues, namely the sustained lack of network capital and concomitant worsening of marginalisation. When residents are unwell, this not only compromises their work productivity, but also their ability to seek employment opportunities. This deprives them of network capital, which Urry (2012, p. 27) defines as the “capacity to engender and sustain relations… which generate practical benefit”, causing residents to be unable to earn livelihoods. More worryingly, however, this establishes a positive feedback loop where impoverished residents slip deeper into marginalisation, making them increasingly vulnerable to discriminatory pollutive practices (Pulido, 2017).

Such phenomena have begun emerging in Los Angeles, which is currently preparing for the 2028 Olympic Games. On the surface, Los Angeles is the epitome of a model host city, being equipped with sufficient finances to construct grand stadiums while pledging to improve minority access to sports spaces. However, this regard for inclusivity does not prove true in reality, as marginalised communities are forced to deal with the air pollution being generated during construction. Since 2016, construction has commenced for three major sports facilities (Mahoney, 2021), with such construction taking place in the predominantly Black city of Inglewood. This has not only heightened the risk of Inglewood residents developing respiratory illnesses, with these residents facing more air pollution than 96% of California state (Mahoney, 2021), but also raised concerns of long-term pollutant exposure from increased traffic (Henry, 2019). The latter is especially ironic — while low-income Inglewood residents use public transport to travel to work, it is also this dependence on public transport that makes residents sick and threatens their sustenance of livelihoods.

The construction of SoFi Stadium in the black-dominated city of Inglewood has drawn criticism from residents, who experience significant air and noise pollution (Mahoney, 2021)

Hence, it is salient to recognise that while the Olympic Games might be a temporary highlight for host cities, its impacts can be permanent and far-reaching in scale. With that, stay tuned for the next post, which will investigate the environmental injustice of Olympic air pollution at the global scale!

References

Burack, E. (2021). The Olympics Devastate Host Cities and Need a Permanent Location [Online image]. Teen Vogue. https://www.teenvogue.com/story/olympics-host-cities-tokyo-los-angeles

Henry, J. (2019, December 27). Traffic, noise from new LA Clippers arena would be ‘significant’ and ‘unavoidable,’ report says. Daily Breeze. https://www.dailybreeze.com/2019/12/27/traffic-noise-from-new-la-clippers-arena-would-be-significant-and-unavoidable-report-says/

Jerrett, M. (2009). Global geographies of injustice in traffic-related air pollution exposure. Epidemiology, 20(2), 231-233. https://doi.org/10.1097/ede.0b013e31819776a1

Liu, L. (2013). Geographic approaches to resolving environmental problems in search of the path to sustainability: The case of polluting plant relocation in China. Applied Geography, 45, 138-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.08.011

Mahoney, A. (2021, October 12). The environmental justice fight to block the 2028 Olympics in Los Angeles. Grist. https://grist.org/cities/2028-olympics-los-angeles-environmental-justice-inglewood/

Pratt, G. C., Vadali, M. L., Kvale, D. L., & Ellickson, K. M. (2015). Traffic, air pollution, minority and socio-economic status: addressing inequities in exposure and risk. International journal of environmental research and public health, 12(5), 5355-5372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120505355

Pulido, L. (2017). Rethinking environmental racism: White privilege and urban development in Southern California. In K. Anderson and B. Braun (Eds.), Environment (pp. 379-407). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315256351-17

Urry, J. (2012). Social networks, mobile lives and social inequalities. Journal of transport geography, 21, 24-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2011.10.003

February 9, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to air pollution health effects (2)

Previously, we explored the potential effects of air pollution on Olympic athletes’ respiratory health through studying two key pollutants: ozone and particulate matter. While we might now know the health risks that these athletes face, this then begets the question of whether they can be trained to adapt to these risks and maintain their sporting standards.

Achieving this is possible, at least in theory. As argued by Mullins (2018), athletes with recent exposure to high ozone levels experience the acclimatisation effect, where they develop weaker respiratory complications in high-ozone environments. This corresponds with Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle’s (2020) findings that endurance runners from high-ozone environments display more consistent performance as they have become desensitised to irritant exposure. Such phenomena thus suggest that to minimise respiratory irritation and optimise performance, athletes can engage in short ozone adaptation training sessions to pre-acclimatise themselves. While this is inapplicable to particulate matter as there is no identifiable threshold below which respiratory illnesses do not develop, particulate matter exposure is harmless unless it exceeds the guideline value of 15 micrograms per cubic metre (World Health Organisation, 2021).

Figure 1: An infographic outlining how Olympic athletes should train for competitions in high-ozone environments (Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle, 2020)

Nevertheless, such adaptation strategies have proven ineffective as they jeopardise the health of high-risk athletes, specifically those with asthma. As reported by Burns et al. (2015), asthma is a chronic respiratory disorder that affects approximately 10% of athletes, and mostly those in endurance sports due to vigorous respiratory activity. It is precisely this correlation between sports intensity and asthma occurrence that explains why — despite the well-established nature of asthma treatment methods — pollution adaptation is not a foolproof solution. While adaptation training sessions admittedly require lower sports intensity than actual competitions in consideration of athlete safety exposure (Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle, 2020), they also involve longer training periods to facilitate the stabilisation of inflammatory symptoms. This is highly unsafe for asthmatic endurance athletes, as prolonged exposure to pollutants — even in small amounts — can exacerbate exercise-induced bronchospasms (Braniš and Vetvicka, 2010) and strain the lungs. Consequently, this increases the severity of asthma attacks, making it difficult for athletes to train and eventually compete properly.

In fact, these concerns turned into reality during the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, when top British track athlete Steve Ovett collapsed from pollution-induced asthma during the 800 metre finals. Despite Ovett’s ozone exposure in Britain, where heavy coal use for industrial activity sparked record-high ozone levels (National Atmospheric Emission Inventory, 2010), the pre-acclimatisation effect was not observed as the severe buildup of smog in Los Angeles (Elsom, 2016) significantly increased aerobic demand. This, coupled with the high level of sports intensity required for short-distance sprinting, resulted in severe bronchospasms that triggered Ovett’s asthma.

British elite runner Steve Ovett (first from left) competing at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, moments before he collapsed from a pollution-induced asthma attack (Walters, 2012)

While Ovett eventually recovered and went on to compete at other mega sports events, many Olympic athletes remain fearful of pollution-induced health hazards, with some nearly dropping out of the Olympic Games. This reinforces the critical need for host cities to manage air pollution during the Olympic Games, so that athletes can compete without fear of health complications and even break Olympic records. After all, as Elsom (2016) warns, athletes cannot perform their best under polluted conditions, no matter how comprehensive their adaptation strategies are.

References

Braniš, M., & Vetvicka, J. (2010). PM10, ambient temperature and relative humidity during the XXIX Summer Olympic Games in Beijing: were the athletes at risk?. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 10(2), 102-110. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2009.09.0055

Burns, J., Mason, C., Mueller, N., Ohlander, J., Zock, J. P., Drobnic, F., … & European Community Respiratory Health Survey. (2015). Asthma prevalence in Olympic summer athletes and the general population: an analysis of three European countries. Respiratory Medicine, 109(7), 813-820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2015.05.002

Elsom, D. (2016, August). Los Angeles 1984: The Olympics under a cloud. Geographical. https://geographical.co.uk/places/cities/item/1855-los-angeles-1984-the-olympics-under-a-cloud

Mullins, J. T. (2018). Ambient air pollution and human performance: Contemporaneous and acclimatization effects of ozone exposure on athletic performance. Health economics, 27(8), 1189-1200. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3667

National Atmospheric Emission Inventory. (2010). UK Emissions of Air Pollutants 1970 to 2008. https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/cat07/1009030925_2008_Report_final270805.pdf

Sandford, G. N., Stellingwerff, T., & Koehle, M. S. (2020). Ozone pollution: a ‘hidden’ environmental layer for athletes preparing for the Tokyo 2020 Olympic & Paralympics. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 55(4), 189-190. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-103360

Walters, M. (2012, June 7). Coe v Ovett: A battle of Britain fought out behind the Iron Curtain. [Online image]. Mirror. https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/other-sports/athletics/london-2012-looking-back-at-coe-865439

World Health Organisation. (2021, September 22). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health

February 6, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to air pollution health effects (1)

Picture this: you are the school’s cross-country representative, running around the track in preparation for the upcoming inter-school championships. You typically enjoy running; it leaves your senses feeling refreshed. Yet you find yourself dreading today’s run. Acrid smoke fills the air, with every breath feeling like a punch to the airways. Dust and fine particles enter your eyes, clouding up your vision. You want to speed up, but your suffocating lungs are crying out for rest. Running has never felt so difficult.

The above scenario may seem far-fetched, but it depicts the reality of many Olympic athletes who struggle to perform amidst polluted conditions in host cities. As you might recall, city-level air pollution is caused by high levels of road traffic stemming from short-term surges in tourist numbers (Gruben, Moss and Moss, 2012). Specifically, ozone and particulate matter are mainly emitted, altering the chemical composition of surrounding air which not only causes atmospheric change, but also worsens air quality. It is precisely the latter that poses health risks to athletes, hence inhibiting their potential to break Olympic records.

Athletes face risks of breathing problems and worsened performance when competing in polluted host cities (Owton, 2015).

While mostly studied for its radiation-trapping abilities, ozone remains notorious for causing respiratory irritation. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2021a) has found that ozone inhalation results in the constriction of airway muscles, subsequently inflaming the airways and causing breathing difficulties. Similarly, Lippi, Guidi and Maffulli (2008) report that ozone intake reduces expiratory volume, leading to constrained exhalation and wheezing. The most alarming discovery, however, is that these effects are strongest in the afternoon when endurance sports competitions are mostly held, thus putting athletes at risk. As ozone is formed when nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react under ultraviolet radiation, ozone levels peak at midday when ultraviolet radiation levels are highest (Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle, 2020). This increases the severity of respiratory symptoms, thus making it difficult for endurance athletes to perform as endurance sports require high aerobic demand.

Endurance sports athletes are particularly susceptible to respiratory irritation, given their high exposure to ozone at midday when competitions are held (Woodward, 2021)

Similarly, particulate matter — which refers to inhalable solid particles suspended in the air (EPA, 2021b) — can impair respiratory functions and athletes’ long-term physical abilities if overly inhaled. Particulate matter combines with sulfur dioxide and water vapour, which are gases also emitted by fuel-consuming vehicles, forming acid-coated particles that deposit in athletes’ lungs and cause irritation (Lippi, Guidi and Maffulli, 2008). Under prolonged inhalation, such inflammation can extend to other nerve tissues (Van Hee, 2012), eventually threatening athletes’ coordination and agility.

Given the sheer potency of these pollutants, it is thus unsurprising that even elite athletes have fallen victim to air pollution-induced health effects. The next post will explore the ineffectiveness of pollution adaptation measures and case studies of athletes whose performance has been hindered due to respiratory complications, so stay tuned!

References

Gruben, K. H., Moss, S. E., & Moss, J. (2012). Do the Olympics create sustained increases in international tourism?. Journal of International Business Research, 11(1), 135-150.

Lippi, G., Guidi, G. C., & Maffulli, N. (2008). Air pollution and sports performance in Beijing. International journal of sports medicine, 29(8), 696-698. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1038684

Owton, H. (2015, September 8). Polluted host cities are putting our champion athletes at risk [Online image]. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/polluted-host-cities-are-putting-our-champion-athletes-at-risk-46830

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2021, May 5). Health Effects of Ozone Pollution. https://www.epa.gov/ground-level-ozone-pollution/health-effects-ozone-pollution#:~:text=Ozone%20can%20cause%20the%20muscles,and%20sore%20or%20scratchy%20throat

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2021, May 26). Particulate Matter (PM) Basics. https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics#:~:text=PM%20stands%20for%20particulate%20matter,seen%20with%20the%20naked%20eye

Van Hee, V. C. (2012). From Olympians to mere mortals: the indiscriminate, global challenges of air pollution. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 186(11), 1076-1077. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201209-1594ED

Woodward, A. (2021, August 12). Runners wearing Nike ‘super shoes’ dominated in the Olympics, taking more than 60% of podium spots [Online image]. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/nike-runners-trounce-olympics-competitors-super-spike-shoe-technology-2021-8