athletes – Quit Playing Games (With Our Earth)

March 24, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

Blooming algae problem caused by water pollution stirs trouble for Olympic teams (2)

How often does one spot a floating carpet of algae at the Olympic Games? That was a question that Qingdao government officials had, when the city’s Olympic sailing venues were struck by unprecedented HAB formation in 2008 — the first such event in the Olympic Games’s 112-year history. The rapid spreading of algal bloom not only posed threats to aquatic species by releasing toxic hydrogen sulphide during decomposition (Glibert, 2014), but also disrupted sailing training and test events. As such, this warranted the implementation of large-scale mitigation strategies, which unfortunately proved ineffective as they overlooked the root cause of HAB growth — anthropogenic water pollution.

The strategies adopted by Qingdao officials were primarily focused on clearing existing traces of algal bloom, given their priority to reduce event disruptions and maintain their image as a competent host city. As reported by Hu and He (2008), the immediate measure taken was to dispatch manpower to dredge the waters, with nearly 10000 locals and 1000 vessels being roped in. Following this massive clean-up exercise, where over 700000 tons of algae were collected (Hu and He, 2008) and $100 million of losses was incurred (Glibert, 2014), officials deployed containment booms to protect sailing areas against HAB infestation. Approximately 24 kilometres of containment booms, which refer to floating barriers typically used to contain oil spills, were used (Hu and He, 2008).

Massive numbers of vessels — and even bulldozers — were deployed to dredge the algae-infested waters in Qingdao’s sailing venues (Cohen, 2008)

However, these measures turned out ineffective, with traces of algal bloom reemerging shortly after affected areas had been weeded (Cohen, 2008). While clean-up and containment strategies were admittedly necessary as HAB growth was disrupting the running of the Olympic Games, they failed to address the central role of water pollution in facilitating such growth. As mentioned previously, HABs develop when surplus nitrate and phosphorus from fertilisers or organic waste lead to nutrient excesses crucial for HAB formation (Hill, 2012). This shows that HAB formation in Qingdao was not the result of algae invasion from offshore areas as officials had suggested (Leliaert et al., 2008), but rather, the localised dumping of waste. These findings are supported by Leliaert et al. (2008), who argue that HABs in Qingdao were triggered by eutrophication — the process where water bodies continually receive nutrient input and eventually disappear (Hill, 2012).

Hence, it was unsurprising that officials’ mitigation strategies failed as point sources were not regulated, resulting in high HAB growth rates of 21.9% daily (Smetacek and Zingone, 2013). Specifically, officials could have advised farmers against dumping chemical waste into tributaries (Smetacek and Zingone, 2013) while investing in wastewater treatment infrastructure. By undertaking specialised treatment (Figure 1), where excess nitrate and phosphorus are thoroughly filtered out (they are only partially removed during primary treatment), eutrophication could have been prevented alongside HAB growth. Manpower could also have been significantly cut back on, bringing major cost savings for officials while making the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games a more financially sustainable one.

Figure 1: Wastewater treatment process (Hill, 2012)

References

Cohen, C. (2008, July 3). China’s blooming algae problem that’s swamping the Olympics. Daily Mail. https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1031444/Chinas-blooming-algae-problem-thats-swamping-Olympics.html

Glibert, P. M. (2014). Harmful Algal Blooms in Asia: an insidious and escalating water pollution phenomenon with effects on ecological and human health. ASIANetwork Exchange, 21(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.16995/ane.46

Hill, M. K. (2012). Water Pollution. In M. K. Hill (Ed.), Understanding Environmental Pollution (pp. 236-285). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511840654

Hu, C., & He, M. X. (2008). Origin and offshore extent of floating algae in Olympic sailing area. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 89(33), 302-303. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008eo330002

Leliaert, F., Malta, E. J., Engelen, A. H., Mineur, F., & De Clerck, O. (2008). Quindao algal bloom culprit identified. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56(9), 1516-1516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.08.004

Smetacek, V., & Zingone, A. (2013). Green and golden seaweed tides on the rise. Nature, 504(7478), 84-88. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12860

March 18, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

Blooming algae problem caused by water pollution stirs trouble for Olympic teams (1)

Water pollution need not take its form in unsightly swathes of untreated waste. Sometimes, it can manifest in harmful algal blooms (HABs), whose cheery green hues belie their toxic and troublesome nature.

Normally, algae is harmless, and is integral to the aquatic ecosystem as it forms the base of the food chain (Glibert, 2014). Yet, it can threaten aquatic species’ lifespans and human health when accumulated in large amounts (Fistarol et al., 2015). In the presence of untreated waste, such as organic matter or unused fertilisers containing reactive nitrogen and phosphorus (Hill, 2012), nutrients are abundant and absorbed by algae. This facilitates large-scale HAB formation, producing toxins that not only accumulate in seafood but also cause water contamination (Fistarol et al., 2015). HABs are hence considered to be water pollutants, as they alter water quality and spread at unmanageable rates characteristic of transboundary water pollution (Hill, 2012).

HABs are notorious for killing aquatic species and causing harm to human health by contaminating seafood (Davies, 2015)

Recently, HABs have entered the spotlight — not for causing fish kills and disrupting the global aquaculture industry (Glibert, 2014), but rather, the Olympic Games. Most notably, HABs of the Enteromorpha prolifera species were spotted at sailing venues in Qingdao (Glibert, 2014) leading up to the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. This was attributed to the widespread dumping of nitrogen-containing farming chemicals into inland lakes that eventually flowed into Qingdao’s Yellow Sea (Branigan, 2008), where sailing venues were located. Such HAB formation was not only problematic as the island-city’s famed pristine blue waters were stained a bright green, but also because the blanket of algae hindered sailboats’ movements. As reported by Glibert (2014), the scale of HAB growth amounted to a sizable 1900 square kilometres, with nearly one-third of the competition area being covered in algal bloom. This caused blockage to practice routes while preventing Olympic athletes from sailing through the waters smoothly, thus compromising the efficacy of their training. As British windsurfer Bryony Shaw had then cautioned, “If [the algae] is still here in August [when we compete], it could be a real problem.”

Sailing venues in the Eastern Chinese city of Qingdao were plagued by HAB growth prior to the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, hampering Olympic sailors’ training (Barlow, 2008)

Although the thick algal mass was eventually cleared and Olympic sailing events could proceed as planned, questions remained as to whether HAB formation could be more effectively mitigated. This was particularly of interest to aspiring host cities with tropical climates, as the fertilising effect of nitrogen and phosphorus was reportedly higher in warm regions (Marris, 2008). The following posts will hence evaluate the mitigation strategies adopted during the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games and whether they can be replicated elsewhere, so stay tuned!

References

Barlow, K. (2008). Algae swamps Olympic sailing city [Online image]. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-06-28/algae-outbreak-hampers-olympic-sailing-preparations/2487806

Branigan, T. (2008, June 30). Chinese race to clear algae from Olympic sailing venue. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/jun/30/pollution.olympicgames2008

Davies, W. (2015). Tonnes of dead fish removed from Rio Olympic rowing venue [Online image]. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-32345508

Fistarol, G. O., Coutinho, F. H., Moreira, A. P. B., Venas, T., Cánovas, A., de Paula Jr, S. E., … & Thompson, F. L. (2015). Environmental and sanitary conditions of Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro. Frontiers in microbiology, 6, 1232. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.01232

Hill, M. K. (2012). Water Pollution. In M. K. Hill (Ed.), Understanding Environmental Pollution (pp. 236-285). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511840654

Marris, E. (2008). Scientists identify algae that almost swamped the Olympics. Nature. https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2008.998

March 14, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to water pollution health effects

Remember the previous instalment of our ‘But we’re only human’ series, where we talked about the health impacts of air pollution on Olympic athletes? Today, we will be covering something similar for water pollution by drawing on two controversial case studies: the 2016 Rio and 2018 Pyeongchang Olympic Games.

Gastrointestinal illnesses are most commonly observed amongst water sports athletes, which is unsurprising as disease-causing microorganisms can easily enter the human body through the eyes or mouth, and are highly resistant (Staggemeier et al., 2017). This is especially so for enteric viruses such as rotavirus and adenovirus, which are found in untreated human sewage and notorious for their stability in the gastrointestinal tract (Staggemeier et al., 2017). In a study conducted by Bosch et al. (2008), 105 to 1013 enteric virus particles were detected per gram of stool amongst infected persons, reflecting their infectiousness and ability to resist antibodies. Therefore, while enteric viruses normally do not result in acute infection or mortality (Weidner and Sevier, 1996), they remain a cause for concern as they can persist for long durations and “easily knock athlete[s] out of competition”.

Enteric viruses are responsible for causing gastrointestinal illnesses amongst athletes, as they are often found in water contaminated by untreated sewage (Bosch, Pintó and Abad, 2006)

In fact, enteric viruses came under the spotlight at the 2016 Rio Olympic Games, where 13 American athletes fell ill with gastroenteritis-related symptoms including diarrhoea and vomiting after a test rowing event. According to the American team doctor, this could have occurred after water in the training venue dripped onto athletes’ water bottles, causing their drinking water to become contaminated. This was a sentiment shared by World Health Organisation officials, who classified Rio de Janeiro’s water quality as poor or very poor, and strongly urged local virologists to conduct testing for enteric viruses. While subsequent studies revealed that only 1% of competing athletes contracted gastroenteritis during the actual event (Soligard et al., 2017), the presence of infection nonetheless reflected that enteric viruses were a threat to human health.

Similarly, at the 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games, two Swiss skiers — and 199 staff — were reported to have contracted norovirus. This was particularly worrying as norovirus, like other enteric viruses, was highly contagious with an infection rate of 1.6 to 3.7. As outlined by Cherabuddi (2018), norovirus can rapidly make its way onto surfaces and food, although it originates from contaminated water sources. Coupled with the use of closed areas for communal dining (Cherabuddi, 2018), this facilitated rapid rates of norovirus infection, with infected persons similarly experiencing symptoms of intestinal inflammation and fever.

After two Swiss skiers fell ill with the highly contagious norovirus at the 2018 Pyeongchang Olympic Games, officials quickly stepped up venue disinfection efforts (South China Morning Post, 2018)

Overall, it is evident that enteric viruses bring significant inconvenience, as they not only prevent Olympic athletes from performing their best, but are also difficult to guard against. This reinforces the importance of regulating point sources in a holistic manner, from improving household access to sewage treatment systems, to developing tools to monitor and optimise these management efforts (Eisenberg, Bartram and Wade, 2016). Only then can health risks associated with water pollution be minimised, without requiring additional resources for viral testing that potentially detract attention from routine monitoring and create a vicious cycle of worsening water pollution.

References

Bosch, A., Pintó, R.M., Abad, F.X. (2006). Survival and Transport of Enteric Viruses in the Environment. In S.M. Goyal (Ed.), Viruses in Foods (pp. 151-187). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-29251-9_6

Bosch, A., Guix, S., Sano, D., & Pinto, R. M. (2008). New tools for the study and direct surveillance of viral pathogens in water. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 19(3), 295-301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2008.04.006

Cherabuddi, K. (2018, February 20). Why is there a norovirus outbreak at the Winter Olympics? 4 questions answered. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/why-is-there-a-norovirus-outbreak-at-the-winter-olympics-4-questions-answered-91886

Eisenberg, J. N., Bartram, J., & Wade, T. J. (2016). The water quality in Rio highlights the global public health concern over untreated sewage. Environmental Health Perspectives, 124(10), 180-181. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP662

Soligard, T., Steffen, K., Palmer, D., Alonso, J. M., Bahr, R., Lopes, A. D., … & Engebretsen, L. (2017). Sports injury and illness incidence in the Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic summer games: a prospective study of 11274 athletes from 207 countries. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(17), 1265-1271. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097956

South China Morning Post. (2018). Norovirus outbreak at Pyeongchang Winter Olympics has officials scrambling as local media frets [Online image]. South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/sport/other-sport/article/2132404/norovirus-outbreak-pyeongchang-winter-olympics-has-officials

Staggemeier, R., Heck, T. M., Demoliner, M., Ritzel, R. G., Röhnelt, N. M., Girardi, V., … & Spilki, F. R. (2017). Enteric viruses and adenovirus diversity in waters from 2016 Olympic venues. Science of the Total Environment, 586, 304-312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.01.223

Weidner, T. G., & Sevier, T. L. (1996). Sport, exercise, and the common cold. Journal of athletic training, 31(2), 154-159. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1318446/pdf/jathtrain00018-0060.pdf

February 9, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to air pollution health effects (2)

Previously, we explored the potential effects of air pollution on Olympic athletes’ respiratory health through studying two key pollutants: ozone and particulate matter. While we might now know the health risks that these athletes face, this then begets the question of whether they can be trained to adapt to these risks and maintain their sporting standards.

Achieving this is possible, at least in theory. As argued by Mullins (2018), athletes with recent exposure to high ozone levels experience the acclimatisation effect, where they develop weaker respiratory complications in high-ozone environments. This corresponds with Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle’s (2020) findings that endurance runners from high-ozone environments display more consistent performance as they have become desensitised to irritant exposure. Such phenomena thus suggest that to minimise respiratory irritation and optimise performance, athletes can engage in short ozone adaptation training sessions to pre-acclimatise themselves. While this is inapplicable to particulate matter as there is no identifiable threshold below which respiratory illnesses do not develop, particulate matter exposure is harmless unless it exceeds the guideline value of 15 micrograms per cubic metre (World Health Organisation, 2021).

Figure 1: An infographic outlining how Olympic athletes should train for competitions in high-ozone environments (Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle, 2020)

Nevertheless, such adaptation strategies have proven ineffective as they jeopardise the health of high-risk athletes, specifically those with asthma. As reported by Burns et al. (2015), asthma is a chronic respiratory disorder that affects approximately 10% of athletes, and mostly those in endurance sports due to vigorous respiratory activity. It is precisely this correlation between sports intensity and asthma occurrence that explains why — despite the well-established nature of asthma treatment methods — pollution adaptation is not a foolproof solution. While adaptation training sessions admittedly require lower sports intensity than actual competitions in consideration of athlete safety exposure (Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle, 2020), they also involve longer training periods to facilitate the stabilisation of inflammatory symptoms. This is highly unsafe for asthmatic endurance athletes, as prolonged exposure to pollutants — even in small amounts — can exacerbate exercise-induced bronchospasms (Braniš and Vetvicka, 2010) and strain the lungs. Consequently, this increases the severity of asthma attacks, making it difficult for athletes to train and eventually compete properly.

In fact, these concerns turned into reality during the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, when top British track athlete Steve Ovett collapsed from pollution-induced asthma during the 800 metre finals. Despite Ovett’s ozone exposure in Britain, where heavy coal use for industrial activity sparked record-high ozone levels (National Atmospheric Emission Inventory, 2010), the pre-acclimatisation effect was not observed as the severe buildup of smog in Los Angeles (Elsom, 2016) significantly increased aerobic demand. This, coupled with the high level of sports intensity required for short-distance sprinting, resulted in severe bronchospasms that triggered Ovett’s asthma.

British elite runner Steve Ovett (first from left) competing at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, moments before he collapsed from a pollution-induced asthma attack (Walters, 2012)

While Ovett eventually recovered and went on to compete at other mega sports events, many Olympic athletes remain fearful of pollution-induced health hazards, with some nearly dropping out of the Olympic Games. This reinforces the critical need for host cities to manage air pollution during the Olympic Games, so that athletes can compete without fear of health complications and even break Olympic records. After all, as Elsom (2016) warns, athletes cannot perform their best under polluted conditions, no matter how comprehensive their adaptation strategies are.

References

Braniš, M., & Vetvicka, J. (2010). PM10, ambient temperature and relative humidity during the XXIX Summer Olympic Games in Beijing: were the athletes at risk?. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 10(2), 102-110. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2009.09.0055

Burns, J., Mason, C., Mueller, N., Ohlander, J., Zock, J. P., Drobnic, F., … & European Community Respiratory Health Survey. (2015). Asthma prevalence in Olympic summer athletes and the general population: an analysis of three European countries. Respiratory Medicine, 109(7), 813-820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2015.05.002

Elsom, D. (2016, August). Los Angeles 1984: The Olympics under a cloud. Geographical. https://geographical.co.uk/places/cities/item/1855-los-angeles-1984-the-olympics-under-a-cloud

Mullins, J. T. (2018). Ambient air pollution and human performance: Contemporaneous and acclimatization effects of ozone exposure on athletic performance. Health economics, 27(8), 1189-1200. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3667

National Atmospheric Emission Inventory. (2010). UK Emissions of Air Pollutants 1970 to 2008. https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/cat07/1009030925_2008_Report_final270805.pdf

Sandford, G. N., Stellingwerff, T., & Koehle, M. S. (2020). Ozone pollution: a ‘hidden’ environmental layer for athletes preparing for the Tokyo 2020 Olympic & Paralympics. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 55(4), 189-190. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-103360

Walters, M. (2012, June 7). Coe v Ovett: A battle of Britain fought out behind the Iron Curtain. [Online image]. Mirror. https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/other-sports/athletics/london-2012-looking-back-at-coe-865439

World Health Organisation. (2021, September 22). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health

February 6, 2022Jo Ee Kwek No Comments

But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to air pollution health effects (1)

Picture this: you are the school’s cross-country representative, running around the track in preparation for the upcoming inter-school championships. You typically enjoy running; it leaves your senses feeling refreshed. Yet you find yourself dreading today’s run. Acrid smoke fills the air, with every breath feeling like a punch to the airways. Dust and fine particles enter your eyes, clouding up your vision. You want to speed up, but your suffocating lungs are crying out for rest. Running has never felt so difficult.

The above scenario may seem far-fetched, but it depicts the reality of many Olympic athletes who struggle to perform amidst polluted conditions in host cities. As you might recall, city-level air pollution is caused by high levels of road traffic stemming from short-term surges in tourist numbers (Gruben, Moss and Moss, 2012). Specifically, ozone and particulate matter are mainly emitted, altering the chemical composition of surrounding air which not only causes atmospheric change, but also worsens air quality. It is precisely the latter that poses health risks to athletes, hence inhibiting their potential to break Olympic records.

Athletes face risks of breathing problems and worsened performance when competing in polluted host cities (Owton, 2015).

While mostly studied for its radiation-trapping abilities, ozone remains notorious for causing respiratory irritation. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2021a) has found that ozone inhalation results in the constriction of airway muscles, subsequently inflaming the airways and causing breathing difficulties. Similarly, Lippi, Guidi and Maffulli (2008) report that ozone intake reduces expiratory volume, leading to constrained exhalation and wheezing. The most alarming discovery, however, is that these effects are strongest in the afternoon when endurance sports competitions are mostly held, thus putting athletes at risk. As ozone is formed when nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react under ultraviolet radiation, ozone levels peak at midday when ultraviolet radiation levels are highest (Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle, 2020). This increases the severity of respiratory symptoms, thus making it difficult for endurance athletes to perform as endurance sports require high aerobic demand.

Endurance sports athletes are particularly susceptible to respiratory irritation, given their high exposure to ozone at midday when competitions are held (Woodward, 2021)

Similarly, particulate matter — which refers to inhalable solid particles suspended in the air (EPA, 2021b) — can impair respiratory functions and athletes’ long-term physical abilities if overly inhaled. Particulate matter combines with sulfur dioxide and water vapour, which are gases also emitted by fuel-consuming vehicles, forming acid-coated particles that deposit in athletes’ lungs and cause irritation (Lippi, Guidi and Maffulli, 2008). Under prolonged inhalation, such inflammation can extend to other nerve tissues (Van Hee, 2012), eventually threatening athletes’ coordination and agility.

Given the sheer potency of these pollutants, it is thus unsurprising that even elite athletes have fallen victim to air pollution-induced health effects. The next post will explore the ineffectiveness of pollution adaptation measures and case studies of athletes whose performance has been hindered due to respiratory complications, so stay tuned!

References

Gruben, K. H., Moss, S. E., & Moss, J. (2012). Do the Olympics create sustained increases in international tourism?. Journal of International Business Research, 11(1), 135-150.

Lippi, G., Guidi, G. C., & Maffulli, N. (2008). Air pollution and sports performance in Beijing. International journal of sports medicine, 29(8), 696-698. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1038684

Owton, H. (2015, September 8). Polluted host cities are putting our champion athletes at risk [Online image]. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/polluted-host-cities-are-putting-our-champion-athletes-at-risk-46830

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2021, May 5). Health Effects of Ozone Pollution. https://www.epa.gov/ground-level-ozone-pollution/health-effects-ozone-pollution#:~:text=Ozone%20can%20cause%20the%20muscles,and%20sore%20or%20scratchy%20throat

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2021, May 26). Particulate Matter (PM) Basics. https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics#:~:text=PM%20stands%20for%20particulate%20matter,seen%20with%20the%20naked%20eye

Van Hee, V. C. (2012). From Olympians to mere mortals: the indiscriminate, global challenges of air pollution. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 186(11), 1076-1077. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201209-1594ED

Woodward, A. (2021, August 12). Runners wearing Nike ‘super shoes’ dominated in the Olympics, taking more than 60% of podium spots [Online image]. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/nike-runners-trounce-olympics-competitors-super-spike-shoe-technology-2021-8