Posted on No Comments on Smoggy skies, foggier futures — The environmental injustice behind air pollution impacts (2)

Smoggy skies, foggier futures — The environmental injustice behind air pollution impacts (2)

Well-respected activist Martin Luther King Jr. had once remarked, “It really boils down to this: that all life is interrelated. We are all caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied into a single garment of destiny.” Perhaps the same can be said about air pollution at the Olympic Games — while its immediate impacts are confined to host cities, these impacts eventually snowball and transcend national boundaries. This interdependence between the local and global, then, is what explains the presence of environmental injustice globally. Similar to city-level environmental injustice where the marginalised are disproportionately affected by air pollution, developing countries are hit more severely by pollution-induced climate impacts.

Developing countries tend to bear the brunt of air pollution impacts, even though such pollution originates from mostly developed host cities (India Today, 2019)

But how exactly does localised air pollution extend to the global scale? The answer lies in the intensification of the greenhouse effect. When Olympic venues are constructed and urban traffic increases, massive amounts of radiation-trapping pollutants — particularly carbon dioxide — are emitted (Schmidt, 2020). This increase in global carbon footprint and trapping of longwave radiation not only raises global atmospheric temperatures, but also influences long-term rainfall availability (Kellogg and Schware, 2019). These climatic changes increase the likelihood of extreme weather events, which greatly devastate developing countries’ economies due to the lack of comprehensive mitigation measures (Kellogg and Schware, 2019).

While data on the exact climatic and socio-economic impact of Olympic-induced air pollution remains limited, it is fair to hypothesise that such pollution worsens environmental injustice. As mentioned previously, air pollution generated at the Olympic Games is inevitably significant, given the large scale of the event and its pollutive activities. In fact, according to Figure 1, new construction is one of the least sustainable but regularly occurring activities at the Olympic Games, with the second lowest sustainability score of 35. This, coupled with recurring incidents where extensive areas of carbon-absorbing vegetation are cut down for venue construction (Konstantaki and Wickens, 2010), reinforces the sheer amount of carbon being released throughout the Olympic Games. Therefore, it is possible that these localised carbon emissions accumulate, eventually altering global climate patterns while causing disproportionate economic damage to developing countries.

Figure 1: An infographic outlining the mean values of nine indicators used in assessing the sustainability of the Olympic Games, and the distribution of values. These indicators are scored from 0 to 100, with 0 meaning ‘least sustainable’ and 100 ‘most sustainable’ (Müller et al., 2021)

Therein lies the manifestation of environmental injustice, which is supported by Borunda’s (2019) findings on climate change-induced inequality. As per figure 2, most countries with high economic damage — who ironically generate the least carbon emissions — lie within the less developed Global South. Considering that these countries inherently suffer from climate vulnerability as they lack sufficient finances to invest in climate-resilient infrastructure, the occurrence of climatic impacts engenders the need for post-disaster relief and worsens their fiscal positions. This further compromises their climate vulnerability as they are unable to implement cost-intensive mitigation measures, creating a vicious cycle where these countries continually experience climate threats and environmental injustice.

Figure 2: A choropleth map illustrating the uneven impact of climate change on countries’ national economies (top) and the global distribution of carbon emissions per capita (bottom) (Borunda, 2019)

Admittedly, such environmental injustice can be lessened through supranational mutual aid programmes, where development agencies offer financial assistance to developing countries to tackle climate impacts. Nevertheless, such measures overlook the root cause of environmental injustice — the generation of pollution. Considering the potential for air pollutants to react with each other and develop into more hazardous secondary pollutants, it is hence crucial to minimise air pollution, especially at mega-events like the Olympic Games. Only then will we be one step closer to eradicating environmental injustice.

References

Borunda, A. (2019, April 23). Inequality is decreasing between countries—but climate change is slowing progress. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/climate-change-economic-inequality-growing 

India Today. (2019). 1 lakh children under 5 years of age die from air pollution in India every year: Study [Online image]. India Today. https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/latest-studies/story/air-pollution-india-deaths-children-five-years-report-centre-for-science-and-environment-1543779-2019-06-06  

Kellogg, W. W., & Schware, R. (Eds.). (2019). Climate change and society: consequences of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429048739 

Konstantaki, M., & Wickens, E. (2010). Residents’ perceptions of environmental and security issues at the 2012 London Olympic Games. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 15(4), 337-357. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775085.2010.533921 

Müller, M., Wolfe, S. D., Gaffney, C., Gogishvili, D., Hug, M., & Leick, A. (2021). An evaluation of the sustainability of the Olympic Games. Nature sustainability, 4(4), 340-348. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00696-5 

Schmidt, R. (2020). The carbon footprint of the games–International climate change law and the Olympics. American Journal of International Law, 114, 362-367. https://doi.org/10.1017/aju.2020.71

Posted on No Comments on Smoggy skies, foggier futures — The environmental injustice behind air pollution impacts (1)

Smoggy skies, foggier futures — The environmental injustice behind air pollution impacts (1)

To many of us, there is nothing more gratifying than watching our favourite athletes push their limits and fight for victory at the Olympic Games. After all, it is these magical moments that encapsulate what the Olympic Games is symbolic of — glory, national pride and resilience. Yet, it is also in these very moments of celebration that we forget about those who are negatively and disproportionately impacted by the Olympic Games. This is especially so for air pollution, where we frequently overlook how residents of host cities — especially the marginalised — are widely exposed to pollutants, causing long-term health and socio-economic problems. 

Therein lies the issue of environmental injustice, where disadvantaged societal groups are forced to bear the “external costs of [economic] development” (Jerrett, 2009, p. 231). Such environmental injustice inherent to Olympic air pollution is most prominent at the city level, where socioeconomically vulnerable poor and minority communities inevitably face air pollution. Such exposure not only manifests from the construction of Olympic venues near marginalised communities, who lack the bargaining power to protest (Pulido, 2017), but also these communities’ reliance on public transport that increases their exposure to traffic emissions (Pratt et al., 2015). 

Tokyo residents in protest against the 2020 Olympic Games, which they argue will worsen environmental inequalities for the city’s poor (Burack, 2021)

However, you might still be wondering why environmental injustice poses a big problem for marginalised residents of host cities, apart from making them more susceptible to chronic respiratory illnesses. Well, it is precisely this likelihood of falling ill that engenders further socio-economic issues, namely the sustained lack of network capital and concomitant worsening of marginalisation. When residents are unwell, this not only compromises their work productivity, but also their ability to seek employment opportunities. This deprives them of network capital, which Urry (2012, p. 27) defines as the “capacity to engender and sustain relations… which generate practical benefit”, causing residents to be unable to earn livelihoods. More worryingly, however, this establishes a positive feedback loop where impoverished residents slip deeper into marginalisation, making them increasingly vulnerable to discriminatory pollutive practices (Pulido, 2017).

Such phenomena have begun emerging in Los Angeles, which is currently preparing for the 2028 Olympic Games. On the surface, Los Angeles is the epitome of a model host city, being equipped with sufficient finances to construct grand stadiums while pledging to improve minority access to sports spaces. However, this regard for inclusivity does not prove true in reality, as marginalised communities are forced to deal with the air pollution being generated during construction. Since 2016, construction has commenced for three major sports facilities (Mahoney, 2021), with such construction taking place in the predominantly Black city of Inglewood. This has not only heightened the risk of Inglewood residents developing respiratory illnesses, with these residents facing more air pollution than 96% of California state (Mahoney, 2021), but also raised concerns of long-term pollutant exposure from increased traffic (Henry, 2019). The latter is especially ironic — while low-income Inglewood residents use public transport to travel to work, it is also this dependence on public transport that makes residents sick and threatens their sustenance of livelihoods.      

The construction of SoFi Stadium in the black-dominated city of Inglewood has drawn criticism from residents, who experience significant air and noise pollution (Mahoney, 2021)

Hence, it is salient to recognise that while the Olympic Games might be a temporary highlight for host cities, its impacts can be permanent and far-reaching in scale. With that, stay tuned for the next post, which will investigate the environmental injustice of Olympic air pollution at the global scale!

References

Burack, E. (2021). The Olympics Devastate Host Cities and Need a Permanent Location [Online image]. Teen Vogue. https://www.teenvogue.com/story/olympics-host-cities-tokyo-los-angeles  

Henry, J. (2019, December 27). Traffic, noise from new LA Clippers arena would be ‘significant’ and ‘unavoidable,’ report says. Daily Breeze. https://www.dailybreeze.com/2019/12/27/traffic-noise-from-new-la-clippers-arena-would-be-significant-and-unavoidable-report-says/ 

Jerrett, M. (2009). Global geographies of injustice in traffic-related air pollution exposure. Epidemiology, 20(2), 231-233. https://doi.org/10.1097/ede.0b013e31819776a1 

Liu, L. (2013). Geographic approaches to resolving environmental problems in search of the path to sustainability: The case of polluting plant relocation in China. Applied Geography, 45, 138-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2013.08.011 

Mahoney, A. (2021, October 12). The environmental justice fight to block the 2028 Olympics in Los Angeles. Grist. https://grist.org/cities/2028-olympics-los-angeles-environmental-justice-inglewood/ 

Pratt, G. C., Vadali, M. L., Kvale, D. L., & Ellickson, K. M. (2015). Traffic, air pollution, minority and socio-economic status: addressing inequities in exposure and risk. International journal of environmental research and public health, 12(5), 5355-5372. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120505355 

Pulido, L. (2017). Rethinking environmental racism: White privilege and urban development in Southern California. In K. Anderson and B. Braun (Eds.), Environment (pp. 379-407). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315256351-17 

Urry, J. (2012). Social networks, mobile lives and social inequalities. Journal of transport geography, 21, 24-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2011.10.003 

Posted on No Comments on But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to air pollution health effects (2)

But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to air pollution health effects (2)

Previously, we explored the potential effects of air pollution on Olympic athletes’ respiratory health through studying two key pollutants: ozone and particulate matter. While we might now know the health risks that these athletes face, this then begets the question of whether they can be trained to adapt to these risks and maintain their sporting standards.

Achieving this is possible, at least in theory. As argued by Mullins (2018), athletes with recent exposure to high ozone levels experience the acclimatisation effect, where they develop weaker respiratory complications in high-ozone environments. This corresponds with Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle’s (2020) findings that endurance runners from high-ozone environments display more consistent performance as they have become desensitised to irritant exposure. Such phenomena thus suggest that to minimise respiratory irritation and optimise performance, athletes can engage in short ozone adaptation training sessions to pre-acclimatise themselves. While this is inapplicable to particulate matter as there is no identifiable threshold below which respiratory illnesses do not develop, particulate matter exposure is harmless unless it exceeds the guideline value of 15 micrograms per cubic metre (World Health Organisation, 2021).

Figure 1: An infographic outlining how Olympic athletes should train for competitions in high-ozone environments (Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle, 2020)

Nevertheless, such adaptation strategies have proven ineffective as they jeopardise the health of high-risk athletes, specifically those with asthma. As reported by Burns et al. (2015), asthma is a chronic respiratory disorder that affects approximately 10% of athletes, and mostly those in endurance sports due to vigorous respiratory activity. It is precisely this correlation between sports intensity and asthma occurrence that explains why — despite the well-established nature of asthma treatment methods — pollution adaptation is not a foolproof solution. While adaptation training sessions admittedly require lower sports intensity than actual competitions in consideration of athlete safety exposure (Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle, 2020), they also involve longer training periods to facilitate the stabilisation of inflammatory symptoms. This is highly unsafe for asthmatic endurance athletes, as prolonged exposure to pollutants — even in small amounts — can exacerbate exercise-induced bronchospasms (Braniš and Vetvicka, 2010) and strain the lungs. Consequently, this increases the severity of asthma attacks, making it difficult for athletes to train and eventually compete properly.   

In fact, these concerns turned into reality during the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, when top British track athlete Steve Ovett collapsed from pollution-induced asthma during the 800 metre finals. Despite Ovett’s ozone exposure in Britain, where heavy coal use for industrial activity sparked record-high ozone levels (National Atmospheric Emission Inventory, 2010), the pre-acclimatisation effect was not observed as the severe buildup of smog in Los Angeles (Elsom, 2016) significantly increased aerobic demand. This, coupled with the high level of sports intensity required for short-distance sprinting, resulted in severe bronchospasms that triggered Ovett’s asthma.    

British elite runner Steve Ovett (first from left) competing at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games, moments before he collapsed from a pollution-induced asthma attack (Walters, 2012)

While Ovett eventually recovered and went on to compete at other mega sports events, many Olympic athletes remain fearful of pollution-induced health hazards, with some nearly dropping out of the Olympic Games. This reinforces the critical need for host cities to manage air pollution during the Olympic Games, so that athletes can compete without fear of health complications and even break Olympic records. After all, as Elsom (2016) warns, athletes cannot perform their best under polluted conditions, no matter how comprehensive their adaptation strategies are.

References

Braniš, M., & Vetvicka, J. (2010). PM10, ambient temperature and relative humidity during the XXIX Summer Olympic Games in Beijing: were the athletes at risk?. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 10(2), 102-110. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2009.09.0055   

Burns, J., Mason, C., Mueller, N., Ohlander, J., Zock, J. P., Drobnic, F., … & European Community Respiratory Health Survey. (2015). Asthma prevalence in Olympic summer athletes and the general population: an analysis of three European countries. Respiratory Medicine, 109(7), 813-820. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2015.05.002 

Elsom, D. (2016, August). Los Angeles 1984: The Olympics under a cloud. Geographical. https://geographical.co.uk/places/cities/item/1855-los-angeles-1984-the-olympics-under-a-cloud 

Mullins, J. T. (2018). Ambient air pollution and human performance: Contemporaneous and acclimatization effects of ozone exposure on athletic performance. Health economics, 27(8), 1189-1200. https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3667 

National Atmospheric Emission Inventory. (2010). UK Emissions of Air Pollutants 1970 to 2008. https://uk-air.defra.gov.uk/assets/documents/reports/cat07/1009030925_2008_Report_final270805.pdf 

Sandford, G. N., Stellingwerff, T., & Koehle, M. S. (2020). Ozone pollution: a ‘hidden’ environmental layer for athletes preparing for the Tokyo 2020 Olympic & Paralympics. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 55(4), 189-190. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-103360  

Walters, M. (2012, June 7). Coe v Ovett: A battle of Britain fought out behind the Iron Curtain. [Online image]. Mirror. https://www.mirror.co.uk/sport/other-sports/athletics/london-2012-looking-back-at-coe-865439 

World Health Organisation. (2021, September 22). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health

Posted on No Comments on But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to air pollution health effects (1)

But we’re only human: Heroic Olympians no exception to air pollution health effects (1)

Picture this: you are the school’s cross-country representative, running around the track in preparation for the upcoming inter-school championships. You typically enjoy running; it leaves your senses feeling refreshed. Yet you find yourself dreading today’s run. Acrid smoke fills the air, with every breath feeling like a punch to the airways. Dust and fine particles enter your eyes, clouding up your vision. You want to speed up, but your suffocating lungs are crying out for rest. Running has never felt so difficult.

The above scenario may seem far-fetched, but it depicts the reality of many Olympic athletes who struggle to perform amidst polluted conditions in host cities. As you might recall, city-level air pollution is caused by high levels of road traffic stemming from short-term surges in tourist numbers (Gruben, Moss and Moss, 2012). Specifically, ozone and particulate matter are mainly emitted, altering the chemical composition of surrounding air which not only causes atmospheric change, but also worsens air quality. It is precisely the latter that poses health risks to athletes, hence inhibiting their potential to break Olympic records.

Athletes face risks of breathing problems and worsened performance when competing in polluted host cities (Owton, 2015).

While mostly studied for its radiation-trapping abilities, ozone remains notorious for causing respiratory irritation. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2021a) has found that ozone inhalation results in the constriction of airway muscles, subsequently inflaming the airways and causing breathing difficulties. Similarly, Lippi, Guidi and Maffulli (2008) report that ozone intake reduces expiratory volume, leading to constrained exhalation and wheezing. The most alarming discovery, however, is that these effects are strongest in the afternoon when endurance sports competitions are mostly held, thus putting athletes at risk. As ozone is formed when nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react under ultraviolet radiation, ozone levels peak at midday when ultraviolet radiation levels are highest (Sandford, Stellingwerff and Koehle, 2020). This increases the severity of respiratory symptoms, thus making it difficult for endurance athletes to perform as endurance sports require high aerobic demand.

Endurance sports athletes are particularly susceptible to respiratory irritation, given their high exposure to ozone at midday when competitions are held (Woodward, 2021)

Similarly, particulate matter — which refers to inhalable solid particles suspended in the air (EPA, 2021b) — can impair respiratory functions and athletes’ long-term physical abilities if overly inhaled. Particulate matter combines with sulfur dioxide and water vapour, which are gases also emitted by fuel-consuming vehicles, forming acid-coated particles that deposit in athletes’ lungs and cause irritation (Lippi, Guidi and Maffulli, 2008). Under prolonged inhalation, such inflammation can extend to other nerve tissues (Van Hee, 2012), eventually threatening athletes’ coordination and agility. 

Given the sheer potency of these pollutants, it is thus unsurprising that even elite athletes have fallen victim to air pollution-induced health effects. The next post will explore the ineffectiveness of pollution adaptation measures and case studies of athletes whose performance has been hindered due to respiratory complications, so stay tuned!

References

Gruben, K. H., Moss, S. E., & Moss, J. (2012). Do the Olympics create sustained increases in international tourism?. Journal of International Business Research, 11(1), 135-150. 

Lippi, G., Guidi, G. C., & Maffulli, N. (2008). Air pollution and sports performance in Beijing. International journal of sports medicine, 29(8), 696-698. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1038684 

Owton, H. (2015, September 8). Polluted host cities are putting our champion athletes at risk [Online image]. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/polluted-host-cities-are-putting-our-champion-athletes-at-risk-46830 

Sandford, G. N., Stellingwerff, T., & Koehle, M. S. (2020). Ozone pollution: a ‘hidden’ environmental layer for athletes preparing for the Tokyo 2020 Olympic & Paralympics. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 55(4), 189-190. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2020-103360  

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2021, May 5). Health Effects of Ozone Pollution. https://www.epa.gov/ground-level-ozone-pollution/health-effects-ozone-pollution#:~:text=Ozone%20can%20cause%20the%20muscles,and%20sore%20or%20scratchy%20throat 

United States Environmental Protection Agency (2021, May 26). Particulate Matter (PM) Basics. https://www.epa.gov/pm-pollution/particulate-matter-pm-basics#:~:text=PM%20stands%20for%20particulate%20matter,seen%20with%20the%20naked%20eye 

Van Hee, V. C. (2012). From Olympians to mere mortals: the indiscriminate, global challenges of air pollution. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 186(11), 1076-1077. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201209-1594ED 

Woodward, A. (2021, August 12). Runners wearing Nike ‘super shoes’ dominated in the Olympics, taking more than 60% of podium spots [Online image]. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/nike-runners-trounce-olympics-competitors-super-spike-shoe-technology-2021-8 

Posted on No Comments on Blaze of glory, or guilt? Illuminating the pollutive impact of the Olympic Torch

Blaze of glory, or guilt? Illuminating the pollutive impact of the Olympic Torch

Welcome back to Quit Playing Games (With Our Earth)! Last week, we explored how transport contributes to air pollution at the Olympic Games. Today, we will be looking at yet another aspect of the Olympic Games that significantly generates air pollution but often goes overlooked — the Olympic Torch.

The Olympic Torch is arguably the most symbolic element of the Olympic Games, though it often gets neglected by spectators in favour of sports matches and medal ceremonies. Its bright, fizzling flame that burns ever so fiercely not only epitomises the light of life, but also the spirit of resilience displayed by Olympic athletes. It is thus unsurprising that the Olympic Torch remains lit throughout the Olympic Games, given its cultural significance. 

The Olympic Torch is traditionally regarded as a symbol of victory and resilience, earning it the honourable title of the ‘blaze of glory’ (Times Of India, 2021)

This (literal) blaze of glory to kickstart the Olympic Games, however, belies the sheer amount of pollutants released into the atmosphere. Such pollution occurs in several stages, with the first being transportation (linking back to what I mentioned in my previous post!). In this stage, the Olympic Torch is transported by air to different cities as part of the customary torch relay, producing carbon emissions. For example, at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, the Olympic Torch was carried around 23 cities (Demerjian, 2008). This expansive journey spanning over 85000 miles saw 462400 gallons of fuel being burnt, emitting an estimated 5500 tons of carbon dioxide (Demerjian, 2008).

The Olympic Torch being transported by plane to the UK for the 2012 Olympic Games (Meikle, 2012)

The second stage of lighting the Olympic Torch adds to these emissions. As reported by Madlin (2008), the Olympic Torch is fuelled by propane, with 12.6 pounds of carbon dioxide being emitted for every gallon of propane burnt. With the torch being perpetually lit, one can only imagine the amount of propane being burnt to prevent the flame from dying out, and the amount of carbon emissions produced. The Olympic Torch is thus symbolic of more than just athletes’ glory, but also the widespread air pollution that we are guilty of generating.

Therein lies the controversial question of whether the Olympic Torch should be cancelled, and if we should adopt environmentally-friendly alternatives (Zhou, 2015). Arriving at a consensus will undoubtedly be challenging given diverse stakeholder opinions — for example, host cities and the International Olympic Committee may prioritise the cultural symbolism of the Olympic Torch.  Nonetheless, we should still raise awareness on the impacts of air pollution, so that stakeholders can obtain a clearer understanding of the trade-offs involved and make a more informed decision. In fact, some impacts at the city level will be covered in my next post, so do look forward to that!

References

Demerjian, D. (2008, April 8). Olympic Torch Emits 5,500 Tons of CO2. Wired. https://www.wired.com/2008/04/olympic-torch-e/  

Madlin, C. (2008, April 29). The Carbon Olympics. Slate. http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/green_room/2008/04/the_carbon_olympics.html 

Meikle, J. (2012, May 18). Olympic torch takes its seat for flight to UK. [Online image]. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/may/18/olympic-torch-flight-uk 

Times Of India (2021). One year late, virus-delayed Tokyo Olympics torch relay begins. [Online image]. Times Of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/tokyo-olympics/one-year-late-virus-delayed-tokyo-olympics-torch-relay-begins/articleshow/81681359.cms 

Zhou, D. (2015). The IOC’s Social Responsibilities in Constructing Global Low Carbon Economy. International Journal of Simulation–Systems, Science & Technology, 16. https://doi.org/10.5013/ijssst.a.16.3a.10 

 

Posted on No Comments on Steering towards environmental disaster: Transport-induced air pollution at the Olympic Games

Steering towards environmental disaster: Transport-induced air pollution at the Olympic Games

“It is the things you cannot see coming that are strong enough to kill you,” award-winning author Jodi Picoult had once said. This could not be further from the truth for air pollution, which is one of the least visible but most harmful types of pollution. Not only are key pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide and particulate matter highly toxic (Bonsu et al., 2020), they are also widely embedded in modern life.


Air pollution is omnipresent in various aspects of urban lifestyles, particularly transport (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2014)

It is thus unsurprising that the Olympic Games — being a mega event involving the large-scale consolidation of urban activity from transportation to construction — significantly generates air pollution. While exact statistics remain uncertain as mentioned previously, the presence of smoggy skies and high respiratory infection rates suggest that air pollution at the Olympic Games is a clear cause for concern. It is hence instrumental to identify the biggest underlying triggers, so that authorities can work towards mitigating their impacts.

One of such triggers is transport, which facilitates the movement of those involved in the Olympic Games at different spatial scales. At the global scale, air transport is used to transport athletes and spectators from their home countries to the host city. While this transport mode is efficient given its relatively high speed and load capacity, enabling the large-scale transnational movement of people, it is also highly pollutive. Commercial aircraft emit significant amounts of nitrogen dioxide when flying in the free troposphere, forming the greenhouse gas ozone which traps outgoing solar radiation at the ground level (Colvile et al., 2001). Carbon dioxide, a pollutant which is produced during fuel combustion for aircraft engines, exacerbates such warming by absorbing outgoing infrared radiation (Colvile et al., 2001). While air travel at the Olympic Games only generates 65000 tons of carbon dioxide, constituting barely one month’s worth of emissions from a coal plant (Jacobo, 2021), its environmental and health-related impacts remain worrying as these pollutants have long residence times.

The emission of nitrogen dioxide by aeroplanes in the free troposphere exacerbates the greenhouse effect (Hotten, 2019)

Land transport at the city scale is equally, if not more, pollutive. During the Olympic Games, road traffic is remarkably high, not only because of the need for vehicles to transport athletes and staff to Olympic venues, but also the surge in tourists travelling there. This produces substantial vehicle emissions which not only contain radiation-trapping ozone, but also particulate matter that jeopardises air quality and causes respiratory illnesses when overly inhaled (He, Fan and Zhou, 2016).

It is hence crucial to be mindful of the significant role that transport plays in causing air pollution at the Olympic Games — only then can we foresee air pollution and its associated impacts, and take mitigation measures. Otherwise, we will be literally and figuratively steering towards environmental disaster.

References

Bonsu, N. O., Pope, F., Ababio, M. O., Appoh, E., Ashinyo, M. E., Essuman, S. N., Donkor, L. CS., & Thomson, I. (2020). How Coronavirus (COVID-19) has made the invisible silent killer of air pollution visible: lessons for building resilient communities. Biomedical Journal of Scientific & Technical Research, 28(1), 21219-21220. https://doi.org/10.26717/bjstr.2020.28.004587 

Colvile, R. N., Hutchinson, E. J., Mindell, J. S., & Warren, R. F. (2001). The transport sector as a source of air pollution. Atmospheric environment, 35(9), 1537-1565. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1352-2310(00)00551-3 

He, G., Fan, M., & Zhou, M. (2016). The effect of air pollution on mortality in China: Evidence from the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. HKUST Institute for Emerging Market Studies Working Paper No. 2015-03. Available at: https://iems.ust.hk/publications/iems-working-papers/guojun-he-effect-air-pollution-mortality-china-olympic 

Hotten, R. (2019). Could aviation ever be less polluting? [Online image]. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/business-48185337 

Jacobo, J. (2021, August 2). How the Tokyo Olympics could affect climate change. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/International/tokyo-olympics-ban-spectators-affect-environment/story?id=78151177 

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2014). The Cost of Air Pollution [Online image]. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://www.oecd.org/env/the-cost-of-air-pollution-9789264210448-en.htm

Posted on No Comments on Just how severe is Olympic pollution?

Just how severe is Olympic pollution?

Hello and welcome back to Quit Playing Games (With Our Earth)! For most readers, you might have seen my previous post on the growing problem of anthropogenic-induced Olympic pollution, and obtained a brief understanding of the issue’s deep-rooted nature. However, you might still be wondering exactly how severe the impact of the Olympic Games on the environment is — to what extent is it changing weather patterns and causing disruptions to our ecosystem?

The simple answer is that we cannot be certain, given inherent difficulties in data collection. Being a highly-celebrated mega event, the Olympic Games attracts massive numbers of spectators and tourists who wish to experience the Olympic spirit lingering in host cities. A case in point would be the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, which drew in a whopping 1.17 million tourists, twice of that for the widely hyped 2014 World Cup (de Faria Nogueira and Di Cola, 2018). While such dense tourism inflows are welcomed by host cities for the economic growth they bring, they also make it challenging for authorities to determine the exact extent of pollutive activities and consequently, the amount of pollution generated.

Record tourist numbers were observed in Rio de Janeiro during the 2016 Olympic Games (China Daily, 2016)

As per Figure 1, the calculation of carbon footprint by the International Olympics Committee (IOC) only accounted for those who were officially recognised by the IOC to have attended the Olympics — such as sports experts and staff — or purchased Olympic-related merchandise. Pollution data could thus be understated, as the consumption patterns of the aforementioned tourists who were also present at the Olympic Games were not acknowledged. In fact, this was observed for the 2016 Olympic Games, where transport-related pollution data was under-calculated. While IOC reports had expressed hope of falling carbon emissions, with approximately 28500 athletes and staff to be flown via the carbon offset scheme (Clark, 2016), some argued otherwise, pointing out that spectators travelling by air were not included. This reinforces the sheer difficulty of quantifying pollution data at mega events, with certain pollutive activities falling under authorities’ radars.

Figure 1: A breakdown of the carbon footprint produced in 2016 and 2017, which were Olympic Games and non-Games years respectively (IOC, 2018)

Nevertheless, we should still exercise environmental consciousness at the Olympic Games, and strive to minimise pollution. While making a consumption choice takes mere seconds, removing the pollutants released during that consumption takes years, and even decades. This concept of residence time, which refers to the average time a pollutant spends in a pollution medium before being removed (Zhao et al., 2020), will be further elaborated in subsequent posts on water pollution, so stay tuned!

References

China Daily (2016). Rio sees 1.17 million tourists during Olympics, zero cases of Zika [Online image]. China Daily. https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/sports/2016rioolympics/2016-08/25/content_26591901.htm 

Clark, S. (2016, August 18). The Environmental Impact Of The Olympics. HuffPost. https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/-frontier/the-environmental-impact-_b_11581162.html 

de Faria Nogueira, M. A., & Di Cola, L. F. L. L. (2018). From marvelous city to Olympic city: the image of Rio de Janeiro as tourist destination. In Z. Pinto-Coelho & R. Pinto (Eds.), Revista Lusófona de Estudos Culturais/Lusophone Journal of Cultural Studies (pp. 103-120). Centro de Estudos of Communication and Society. 

International Olympics Committee (2018). IOC Sustainability Report [Online image]. International Olympics Committee. https://stillmed.olympics.com/media/Document%20Library/OlympicOrg/IOC/What-We-Do/celebrate-olympic-games/Sustainability/IOC%20Sustainability%20Report_Final%20Rev1.pdf 

Zhao, N., Wang, G., Li, G., Lang, J., & Zhang, H. (2020). Air pollution episodes during the COVID-19 outbreak in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei region of China: An insight into the transport pathways and source distribution. Environmental Pollution, 267, 1-11. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.envpol.2020.115617

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Introduction: Understanding Olympic Pollution

It is indisputable that the Olympic Games remains one of the most celebrated events in history. Held once every four years, the Olympic Games not only attracts massive numbers of spectators eager to catch sporting action, but also extensive coverage from media houses eager to capture the latest updates. A study by the International Olympic Committee (2021) reported that the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games had a viewership of 3.05 billion — an all-time high. I was one of the 3.05 billion myself, watching excitedly as national swimmer Joseph Schooling fought to the finish line (and I am sure you would have, too). 

But the grandeur of the Olympic Games goes beyond huge crowds and widespread publicity — it is also evident in the placemaking strategies that policymakers adopt to uplift their cities’ urban image (De Brito and Richards, 2017). Iconic stadiums and recreational infrastructure pepper cities’ skylines, not only creating an artistic spectacle but also painting pictures of liveable homes. Such is the case for the Chinese city of Beijing — during the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games, multiple sports and recreational venues like the Beijing National Stadium were constructed, adding vibrancy to Beijing’s landscape.

The iconic Beijing National Stadium that was home to the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games (National Geographic, n.d.)

Beneath the glitz and glamour of the Olympic Games lies a grim reality, however. Across various stages of the Olympic Games, from initial preparations to actual matches, significant amounts of pollution are being generated through human activities. These include the transportation of athletes and spectators to venues in carbon-intensive transport modes, display of light shows, and many others that remain unseen to the public but hurt the ecosystem equally deeply. Yet, such anthropogenic pollution is only likely to worsen, given the established nature and sheer scale of the Olympic Games that make it challenging to implement environmental reforms in the short-term (Clark, 2016).

Smog-filled skies in Beijing during the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games (Jamieson, 2009)

This is why I started ‘Quit Playing Games (With Our Earth)’ — to shed light on this pressing issue of Olympic pollution that we overlook amidst our enduring focus on the matches (and our favourite athletes). Subsequently, I will not only be exploring the types of pollution produced by the Olympic Games and their impacts, but also the green initiatives that host cities have and will be implementing. Hopefully, as you accompany me on this journey, you will better understand how the Olympic Games contributes to environmental pollution, and be inspired to think about how you can also play a part in making the event a greener one!

References

Clark, S. (2016, August 18). The Environmental Impact Of The Olympics. HuffPost. https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/-frontier/the-environmental-impact-_b_11581162.html 

De Brito, M. P., & Richards, G. W. (2017). Events and placemaking. International Journal of Event and Festival Management, 8(1), 8-23. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-09-2016-0063 

International Olympics Committee. (2021, December 8). Olympic Games Tokyo 2020 watched by more than 3 billion people [Press release]. https://olympics.com/ioc/news/olympic-games-tokyo-2020-watched-by-more-than-3-billion-people#:~:text=The%20Olympic%20Games%20Tokyo%202020,International%20Olympic%20Committee%20(IOC).&text=A%20total%20of%203.05%20billion,linear%20TV%20and%20digital%20platforms 

Jamieson, A. (2009). Beijing Olympics were the most polluted games ever, researchers say [Online image]. The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/london-2012/5597277/Beijing-Olympics-were-the-most-polluted-games-ever-researchers-say.html 

National Geographic. (n.d.). Beijing National Stadium [Online image]. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/photo/tdigh-04-06-olympics/