Category Archives: Lithium Pollution

Lithium, Lithium Pollution, Lithium-ion battery

Problems associated with recycling of LIBs

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Despite having discussed all the environmental and social impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), we cannot ignore the fact that the demand for LIBs will continue to rise due to their importance in the clean energy sector. To reduce pollution in a trend that cannot be reversed, many would think of the 3Rs, reduce, reuse and recycle. However, as briefly mentioned in the first few blogs, implementing the 3Rs have its own set of problems. As the demand for LIBs is expected to grow exponentially, reducing the use of LIBs is not very feasible now. Hence, this blog will mainly explore the challenges related to reusing and recycling LIBs. 

Reusing LIBs:

Reusing refurbished or repurposed LIBs is not a new practice. LIBs have long been reused for less demanding purposes at the end of their first end-of-life (Beaudet et al., 2020). This is because most batteries will still have a charge capacity of up to 80% at their first end of life (Beaudet et al., 2020).Through reusing these LIBs, demand for new LIBs which are much more polluting due to pollution related to production decreases. 

However, the decreasing production cost of LIBs especially in recent years has made reusing LIBs increasingly less economically viable (Beaudet et al., 2020; Ziegler et al., 2021; Mauler et al., 2021). According to Ziegler et al. (2021), LIB technology has decreased by up to 97% since they were first commercially used 30 years ago. This exponential decrease in the cost of LIBs is closely tied to the emergence of Chinese LIB producers (Figure 1) (Wakabayashi & Fu, 2022). Along with the stagnation of the high restoration cost of LIBs, it is becoming increasingly attractive for manufacturers to choose new LIBs rather than refurbish old ones. 

Figure 1: Decrease in LIB technology over the years (Mauler et al., 2021)

Recycling LIBs: 

The recycling process of LIBs remains tedious due to the cumbersome collection and recycling process (Spector, 2022; Beaudet et al., 2020). Although governments such as the Chinese government have encouraged manufacturers to choose recycled materials for manufacturing (Wei et al., 2022), the success of these efforts is put into question. It is costly, time-consuming and troublesome for manufacturers to collect the LIBs back for disassembling and recycling (Spector, 2022; Beaudet et al., 2020). LIBs that are exported overseas will need to be shipped back to manufacturers if manufacturers do not have factories overseas which are more often than not the case. 

What about engaging a recycling firm?

While engaging a third part recycling firm may sound feasible, it is often difficult for manufacturers and recycling firms to reach an agreement due to a variety of reasons. Due to intellectual property rights and industrial secrets, manufacturers are often unwilling to share the chemical formulas of batteries with third-party recycling firms making the safe discharging of batteries an extremely difficult one (Sachan et al., 2020). Disassembling a battery without discharging often leads to explosions and fires making LIB recycling facilities particularly expensive to protect the safety of workers and ensure a safe disassembling process. 

Reference List

Beaudet, A., Larouche, F., Amouzegar, K., Bouchard, P., & Zaghib, K. (2020). Key Challenges and Opportunities for Recycling Electric Vehicle Battery Materials. Sustainability, 12(14), 5837. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145837 

Mauler, L., Duffner, F., Zeier, W. G., & Leker, J. (2021). Battery cost forecasting: a review of methods and results with an outlook to 2050. Energy and Environmental Science, 14(9), 4712–4739. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee01530c 

Sachan, S., Deb, S., & Singh, S. N. (2020). Different charging infrastructures along with smart charging strategies for electric vehicles. Sustainable Cities and Society, 60, 102238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102238 

Spector, J. (2022, June 13). EV battery recycling is costly. These 5 startups could change that. Canary Media. https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/electric-vehicles/ev-battery-recycling-is-costly-these-five-startups-could-change-that 

Wakabayashi, D., & Fu, C. (2022, September 27). For China’s Auto Market, Electric Isn’t the Future. It’s the Present. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/26/business/china-electric-vehicles.html 

Wei, L., Wang, C., & Li, Y. (2022). Governance strategies for end-of-life electric vehicle battery recycling in China: A tripartite evolutionary game analysis. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1071688 

Ziegler, M. S., Song, J., & Trancik, J. E. (2021). Determinants of lithium-ion battery technology cost decline. Energy and Environmental Science, 14(12), 6074–6098. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee01313k 

Environmental pollution, Lithium Pollution, Pollution, SO2, Toxic Gases

Toxic gases released during the burning of Lithium-ion batteries (SO2)

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The third toxic gas I will be discussing is sulfur dioxide (SO2), a colourless but odorous gas that is highly toxic (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2023). It is most commonly produced from the burning of fossil fuels and by the smelting of sulfur-containing mineral ores (Queensland Government, 2017). Naturally, erupting volcanoes are a significant source of SO2 emissions (Queensland Government, 2017). Similar to HF discussed in blog 11, SO2 is much more toxic compared to other gases released during the burning of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) (Peng et al., 2020). 

Within batteries, SO2 is produced from burning sulfur-based compounds which are commonly used as reduction-type additives (Peng et al., 2020; Zhang, 2006). Similar to other toxic gases released during the burning of LIBs, the concentration of SO2 released depends on the state of charge (SOC) of the battery (Peng et al., 2020). The higher the SOC, the higher the concentration of SO2 released (Peng et al., 2020) (Figure 1). Despite, a lower concentration at lower SOCs, SO2 continues to make up a large part of all the toxic gases released regardless of SOC (Peng et al., 2020). While the maximum concentration of SO2 released, 115 mg/m3 (around 43.89 ppm), does not pose an immediate threat to the survival of a person, this concentration is more than enough to cause, mucositis, irritation to mucous membranes (Peng et al., 2020; Cleveland Clinic, 2022 ). 

According to Queensland Government (2017), the recommended air quality standards for sulfur dioxide are:

  • 0.20 ppm for a 1-hour exposure period
  • 0.08ppm for a 24-hour exposure period
  • 0.02ppm for an annual exposure period.

Health impacts of high concentrations of SO2:

  1. Respiratory problems
  • Difficulty to breath, people with existing respiratory problems such as asthma, and young children are particularly sensitive to the impacts of inhaling SO2. 
  • People with existing heart problems and diseases are also much more sensitive to the effects of SO2. 

2. Painful sores in the mouth/ gastrointestinal symptoms

  • High concentrations of SO2 will result in soreness in the mouth due to mucositis. Coughing and throat irritation are common symptoms related to high exposure to SO2 as well. 

(United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2023; Queensland Government, 2017)

Besides the direct impacts of SO2, SO2 can react with other chemicals in the atmosphere to form small particles that can easily enter the lungs of a person causing adverse health impacts (Queensland Government, 2017). For instance, reactions between SO2 and NOx form sulfates, which form fine particles (He et al., 2015). These fine particles are often the main culprit behind haze in parts of the world (He et al., 2015). They were also the main cause of the major haze events in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei regions in China in 2013 (He et al., 2015). 

Figure 1: Haze event in Beijing in 2013 (Branigan, 2013)

Reference List

Branigan, T. (2013, January 14). Beijing smog continues as Chinese state media urge more action. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/14/beijing-smog-continues-media-action 

Cleveland Clinic. (2022). Mucositis: Types, Symptoms & Treatment. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/24181-mucositis#:~:text=Mucositis%20is%20inflammation%20of%20the,painful%20and%20carries%20certain%20risks 

He, H., Wang, X., Ma, Q., Ma, J., Chu, B., Ji, D., Tang, G., Liu, C., Zhang, H., & Hao, J. (2015). Mineral dust and NOx promote the conversion of SO2 to sulfate in heavy pollution days. Scientific Reports, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep04172 

Peng, Y., Yang, L., Ju, X., Liao, B., Ye, K., Li, L., Cao, B., & Ni, Y. (2020). A comprehensive investigation on the thermal and toxic hazards of large format lithium-ion batteries with LiFePO4 cathode. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 381, 120916. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.120916 

Queensland Government. (2017, March 27). Sulfur dioxide. Environment, Land and Water | Queensland Government. https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/management/monitoring/air/air-pollution/pollutants/sulfur-dioxide#:~:text=Sulfur%20dioxide%20affects%20the%20respiratory,as%20asthma%20and%20chronic%20bronchitis 

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2023, February 16). Sulfur Dioxide Basics | US EPA. US EPA. https://www.epa.gov/so2-pollution/sulfur-dioxide-basics 

Zhang, S. (2006). A review on electrolyte additives for lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 162(2), 1379–1394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2006.07.074

Electric Vehicles, Environmental pollution, Lithium Pollution, Lithium-ion battery

Lithium-ion batteries and Regulations in Singapore

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As Li pollution is a relatively new pollution that has only appeared in the past 2 to 3 decades, the attention it receives remains limited. Today, only a few countries such as Australia (Shen et al., 2020), have identified and listed Li as a pollutant in water. Li is also missing from the list of pollutants tested to qualify water as safe drinking water published by PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency (Public Utilities Board, n.d.) (Figure 1). With the growing concentration of Li to levels no longer negligible in the environment, it is necessary to include Li as a pollutant in indicators (Shen et al., 2020).

Figure 1: Singapore Drinking Water Quality (Jul 2021 – Jun 2022) (Public Utilities Board, n.d.)

Besides the lack of Li indicators, there is also a lack of standards and regulations imposed on lithium-ion battery producers. Despite having over a decade of production history in China, China’s Ministry of Ecology and Environment only issued the Technical Specification of Pollution Control for Treatment of Waste Power Lithium-ion Battery at the end of 2021 (AOKI, 2021). On the other hand, places where the lithium-ion battery industry is still very young such as Australia does not have related regulations and standards for new battery factories yet (ERAC, n.d.). Very often, places that lack a national standard for battery manufacturing will refer to overseas standards such as CE standards required by the European Union (EU, 2022) (Figure 2).

Figure 2: CE sign (American Society for Quality, n.d.)

However, as these are just references, factories are not legally required to abide by these standards. Without proper enforcement, Li waste material can easily escape into the environment polluting water sources consumed and used for agriculture. Drinking Li-polluted water for prolonged periods can have detrimental health impacts. 

 

Moving back to Singapore, although Singapore does not currently have a lithium-ion battery of its own, Singapore continues to rely heavily on lithium-ion battery-powered devices and machines. In an effort to reduce carbon emissions, The Singapore Green Plan 2030 campaigns to raise awareness and promote electric vehicles to the public (LTA, 2022) (Figure 3). 

The Singapore Green Plan 2030 includes a strong push to electrify our vehicle population, which would help Singapore achieve our vision of 100% cleaner energy vehicles by 2040. – LTA, 2022

Figure 3: Power EVery Move campaign logo (LTA, 2022)

This move towards EVs will no doubt significantly increase the use and disposal of lithium-ion batteries. Currently, little information can be found online about the recycling and management of these lithium-ion batteries in Singapore. To promote the use of these batteries, Tan (2020), Director of the Waste and Resource Management Department National Environment Agency (NEA), has even gone on to state that 

Lithium-ion batteries are not hazardous, while nickel metal hydride batteries are hermetically sealed to prevent materials within the batteries from escaping into the environment. 

However, Li does have impacts on the environment and humans when consumed and lithium-ion batteries do contain nickel and other heavy metals in its cathode etc. (Yan et al., 2020). Given the increase in the concentration of Li in rivers in Shanghai and other major cities due to the increase in lithium-ion batteries (Shen et al., 2020), Singapore must ensure that proper regulations are set in place to ensure that these batteries are properly recycled and disposed of. 

 

Reference List

 

American Society for Quality. (n.d.). What is CE Marking? – CE Mark Certification vs. Self Declaration | ASQ. https://asq.org/quality-resources/ce-marking 

AOKI, K. (2021, September 17). China issues technical standards to control pollution from treatment of EVs’ waste lithium-ion batteries | Enviliance ASIA. Enviliacne ASIA. https://enviliance.com/regions/east-asia/cn/report_4282 

ERAC. (n.d.). Standards – ERAC. https://www.erac.gov.au/standards/

EU. (2022). CE marking – obtaining the certificate, EU requirements. Your Europe. https://europa.eu/youreurope/business/product-requirements/labels-markings/ce-marking/index_en.htm

LTA. (2022, April). LTA | Electric Vehicles. https://www.lta.gov.sg/content/ltagov/en/industry_innovations/technologies/electric_vehicles.html 

Public Utilities Board. (n.d.). Singapore Drinking Water Quality. In Public Utilities Board. https://www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/Singapore_Drinking_Water_Quality.pdf 

Shen, J., Li, X., Shi, X., Wang, W., Zhou, H., Wu, J., Wang, X., & Li, J. (2020). The toxicity of lithium to human cardiomyocytes. Environmental Sciences Europe, 32(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-020-00333-6 

Tan, D. (2020, April). Readers’ Letters. National Environment Agency. https://www.nea.gov.sg/media/readers-letters/index/nea-ensures-that-all-e-waste-recyclers-have-the-necessary-pollution-control-equipment-to-meet-nea-s-emissions-and-discharge-standards 

Yan, W., Yang, S., Huang, Y., Yang, Y., & Guohui Yuan. (2020). A review on doping/coating of nickel-rich cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 819, 153048. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.153048 

 

Environmental pollution, Impact on Humans and Animals, Lithium Pollution, Pollution

Impacts of Lithium Pollution on Humans and Animals Part 3

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Albeit having negative impacts on human health, Li is not an uncommon component of many medicines including treatment for bipolar disorder (Gitlin, 2016; Duvall & Gallicchio, 2017). Side effects of patients taking these medicine include kidney problems and dizziness similar to those discussed in the previous blogs, further proving the impacts Li have on human health (Gitlin, 2016; Duvall & Gallicchio, 2017). 

However, currently, most studies about the negative impacts Li has on humans revolve around the kidney and little is known about its impacts on the cardiovascular system (Shen et al., 2020). Besides cardiovascular diseases caused by kidney diseases, Shen et al. (2020) found that Li significantly constrained the proliferation of cardiomyocytes, the ‘cell responsible for the contraction of the heart’ (Keepers et al., 2020). Li was also found to encourage cell apoptosis (Shen et al., 2020) (Figure 1). 

Apoptosis: A type of cell death in which a series of molecular steps in a cell lead to its death. This is one method the body uses to get rid of unneeded or abnormal cells. The process of apoptosis may be blocked in cancer cells. Also called programmed cell death. – National Cancer Institute, n.d. 

Figure 1: Apoptosis VS Necrosis, ways a cell dies (CUSABIO TECHNOLOGY LLC, n.d.)

Shen et al. (2020) tested the impact of Li on AC16 Human Cardiomyocyte Cell Line propagated using DMEM High Glucose (Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle Medium) at different concentrations. 

AC16 is a proliferating human cardiomyocyte cell line that was derived from the fusion of primary cells from adult human ventricular heart tissues with SV40 transformed, uridine auxotroph human fibroblasts, devoid of mitochondrial DNA… AC-16 can be used to address questions of cardiac biology at the cellular and molecular levels. – Merck KGaA, n.d.

Cell Proliferation

LiCl/Li2SO4 at 0.2  mmol/L, 1  mmol/L, 5 mmol/L or 25 mmol/L were used over a period of 2 days on the AC16 Human Cardiomyocyte cells (Shen et al., 2020). After 2 days, Shen et al. (2020) discovered that the growth of cells that were exposed to 5 mmol/L and 25 mmol/L of LiCl was notably inhibited (Figure 2).   

Figure 2: Proliferation of AC16 cells measured in luminescent assay and CCK-8 assay (Shen et al., 2020)

To determine if growth inhibition was due to Cl instead of Li, Shen et al. (2020) added NaCl to the study and found no significant change when NaCl was added. Additionally, the growth of cells that were exposed to 2.5 mmol/L and 12.5 mmol/L of Li2SO4 was also evidently inhibited (Shen et al., 2020).   

Cell Apoptosis

To study cell apoptosis, Annexin V‐FITC/PI apoptosis assay is used(Shen et al., 2020; Rieger et al., 2011). 

The Annexin V/PI protocol is a commonly used approach for studying apoptotic cells. PI is used more often than other nuclear stains because it is economical, stable and a good indicator of cell viability, based on its capacity to exclude dye in living cells. – Rieger et al., 2011

After 2 days, cells treated with 5 mmol/L LiCl and 2.5  mmol/L Li2SO4 observed a significant increase in cell apoptosis compared to uncontaminated cells (Shen et al., 2020) (Figure 3). 

Figure 3: Cell apoptosis of AC16 cells (Shen et al., 2020)

Therefore, besides the known effects Li has on the kidney and liver, exposure and intake of high concentrations of Li can potentially have a deadly effect on the heart and the cardiovascular system. In the next blog, I will explore how we may be more vulnerable to taking in high concentrations of Li today as compared to the past. 

 

Reference List:

CUSABIO TECHNOLOGY LLC. (n.d.). Get an Overview of Cell Death- CUSABIO. https://www.cusabio.com/cytokines/Cell-Death.html 

Duvall, A. E., & Gallicchio, V. S. (2017). Lithium Treatment in Clinical Medicine: History, Current Status and Future Use. Journal of Cell Science &Amp; Therapy, 08(03). https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7013.1000270 

Gitlin, M. (2016). Lithium side effects and toxicity: prevalence and management strategies. International Journal of Bipolar Disorders, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40345-016-0068-y 

Keepers, B., Liu, J., & Qian, L. (2020). What’s in a cardiomyocyte – And how do we make one through reprogramming? Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Molecular Cell Research, 1867(3), 118464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamcr.2019.03.011 

Merck KGaA. (n.d.). AC16 Human Cardiomyocyte Cell Line. In Merck KGaA. https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/deepweb/assets/sigmaaldrich/product/documents/150/525/20228073-scc109.pdf 

National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/apoptosis 

Rieger, A. M., Nelson, K. L., Konowalchuk, J. D., & Barreda, D. R. (2011). Modified Annexin V/Propidium Iodide Apoptosis Assay For Accurate Assessment of Cell Death. Journal of Visualized Experiments, 50. https://doi.org/10.3791/2597 

Shen, J., Li, X., Shi, X., Wang, W., Zhou, H., Wu, J., Wang, X., & Li, J. (2020). The toxicity of lithium to human cardiomyocytes. Environmental Sciences Europe, 32(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-020-00333-6

Environmental pollution, Impact on Humans and Animals, Lithium Pollution, Pollution

Impacts of Lithium Pollution on Humans and Animals Part 2

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Continuing from the previous blog, I will continue discussing the impacts Li has (Nciri et al., 2011). 

As exposure to Li decreased chemical and biological functions, particularly in the kidneys and liver, there will be an increase in the risk of diseases (Nciri et al., 2011). Given the similar physiology, organs and body plans, rats often suffer similar diseases as humans (Glass, 2016). Therefore understanding the possible diseases rats can suffer from due to exposure to Li is very beneficial to have a grasp of the possible diseases humans might suffer from when exposed to Li pollution for extended periods. 

Figure 1: (American Kidney Fund, 2021)

Diseases that may arise include

1. Chronic kidney disease (CKD)

The probability of developing chronic kidney disease increases exponentially due to damage to renal tissue which is caused by prolonged oxidative stress as mentioned in the previous blog (HealthMatters.io, n.d.; American Kidney Fund, 2021). 

CKD reduces the production of the hormone erythropoietin in the kidneys (Laminate Medical, 2017). Hormone erythropoietin is essential to the body as it protects and stimulates the production of red blood cells (Schoener & Borger, 2022). Hence, CKD, especially in people in the last stage of the disease, often results in anemia which can lead to tiredness, dizziness and dyspnea (shortness of breath) (Laminate Medical, 2017). Left untreated, anemia can lead to organ and heart failure (Laminate Medical, 2017). 

2. Cardiovascular diseases 

Besides anemia, CKD often leads to cardiovascular diseases (Pellegrino et al., 2019). A weaker kidney will put more stress on the heart as more energy is needed to bring blood to the kidney (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022). Additionally, CKD can alter the blood pressure of patients which will lead to heart disease (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022). 

CKD can also result in the build-up of salt and fluid which will damage blood vessels and cause atherosclerosis (building up of substances along artery walls) (Laminate Medical, 2017; Mayo Clinic, n.d.). 

The build-up of urea in the body, mentioned in the previous blog, results in toxic reactions and causes inflammation of the pericardium, an important sac around the heart that protects and surrounds the heart (Laminate Medical, 2017; Cleveland Clinic, 2022).

3. Cancer

CKD at the later stages often leads to kidney cancer (National Kidney Foundation, n.d.). National Kidney Foundation (n.d.), observed that people who suffer from end-stage CKD are around 5 times as likely to get kidney cancer compared to people with a healthy kidney. 

Kidney cancer occurs when kidney cell mutates and multiply forming a tumour (Mayo Clinic, 2021). Without prompt treatment, the cancer cell can spread to other parts of the body and may lead to other cancer such as Thyroid cancer and Prostate cancer (American Cancer Society, 2020). 

4. Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease 

Li pollution leading to CKD can result in Parkinson’s disease among patients (Nciri et al., 2011). Apart from cardiovascular diseases, CKD can result lead to neurological complications (Meléndez-Flores & Estrada-Bellmann, 2020). Meléndez-Flores & Estrada-Bellmann (2020) suggest that the decrease in cognitive functions will result in Parkinson’s disease which can eventually lead to dementia, Alzheimer’s disease and other neural disorders (Nciri et al., 2011; Meléndez-Flores & Estrada-Bellmann, 2020).

 

As the experiment on lab rats only lasted for a month, further impacts of prolonged exposure to Li are not studied. Should Li pollution become significant in water bodies and food chains in the near future, exposure to Li will stay for a much longer period of time if no active measures are taken to reduce concentrations of Li in the environment. Other parts besides the Kidney and Liver may likely be significantly impacted as the length of exposure increases, leading to a range of other diseases. Additionally, Li at concentrations above 2 g/kg of food was not analysed and hence other possible impacts the higher concentration of Li has on animals and humans have yet to be discovered (Nciri et al., 2011). 

 

Reference List: 

American Cancer Society. (2020, June 9). Living as a Kidney Cancer Survivor. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/kidney-cancer/after-treatment/follow-up.html 

American Kidney Fund. (2021, November 6). Chronic kidney disease (CKD). https://www.kidneyfund.org/all-about-kidneys/chronic-kidney-disease-ckd 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022, July 12). Link Between Chronic Kidney Disease, Diabetes, and Heart Disease. https://www.cdc.gov/kidneydisease/publications-resources/link-between-ckd-diabetes-heart-disease.html 

Cleveland Clinic. (2022, July 19). Pericardium: Function and Anatomy. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/23561-pericardium 

Erythropoietin | You and Your Hormones from the Society for Endocrinology. (n.d.). https://www.yourhormones.info/hormones/erythropoietin/ 

Glass, D. (2016, July 22). How Humans Are Like Rats. A Moment of Science – Indiana Public Media. https://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/how-humans-are-like-rats.php 

HealthMatters.io. (n.d.). Lipid Peroxides (Genova) | Healthmatters.io. https://healthmatters.io/understand-blood-test-results/lipid-peroxides-genova 

Laminate Medical. (2017, January 11). Effects of Kidney Failure on Body Systems | Laminate Medical. Laminate Medical Technologies. http://www.laminatemedical.com/2017/01/11/effects-kidney-failure-body-systems/ 

Mayo Clinic. (n.d.). Arteriosclerosis / atherosclerosis – Symptoms and causes. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/arteriosclerosis-atherosclerosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20350569 

Mayo Clinic. (2021, March 15). Kidney cancer – Symptoms and causes. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/kidney-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20352664 

Meléndez-Flores, J. D., & Estrada-Bellmann, I. (2020). Linking chronic kidney disease and Parkinson’s disease: a literature review. Metabolic Brain Disease, 36(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11011-020-00623-1 

National Kidney Foundation. (n.d.). Kidney Cancer. https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/kidney-cancer 

Nciri, R., Allagui, M. S., Bourogaa, E., Saoudi, M., Murat, J. C., Croute, F., & Elfeki, A. (2011). Lipid peroxidation, antioxidant activities and stress protein (HSP72/73, GRP94) expression in kidney and liver of rats under lithium treatment. Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry, 68(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13105-011-0113-3 

Pellegrino, D., La Russa, D., & Marrone, A. (2019). Oxidative Imbalance and Kidney Damage: New Study Perspectives from Animal Models to Hospitalized Patients. Antioxidants, 8(12), 594. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox8120594 

Schoener, B., & Borger, J. (2022, December 5). NCBI – WWW Error Blocked Diagnostic. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK536997/ 

Environmental pollution, Impact on Humans and Animals, Lithium Pollution, Pollution

Impacts of Lithium Pollution on Humans and Animals Part 1

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As mentioned in the previous blogs, the rapid growth in demand for lithium-ion batteries and low rates of recycling due to the low cost of production has resulted in Li pollution when these batteries are discarded into landfills with other municipal waste. This sudden increase in Li in the environment impacts marine life, plants, animals, and humans. In the next few blogs, I will explore more about the impacts Li have on animals and humans. 

With the increasing concentration of Li in the environment, concerns about prolonged exposure to high concentrations of Li are also rising. As more Li leaks into the environment, into water and food sources, Li will enter the food chain as animals and humans consume contaminated plants, animals and water. To understand the impacts consuming Li has on humans and animals, experiments have been conducted on animals such as rats.

Figure 1: (Magazine, 2019) 

Experiments on young Wistar male rats conducted by Nciri et al. (2011) have found significant changes to the chemical and biological activities in the kidneys and liver of rats even at low concentrations of Li. Experiment rats were fed food and water with the same concentrations of Li over different periods and changes were observed over a period of up to 28 days (Nciri et al., 2011). 

Significant changes observed: 

1. Decrease regulating function of liver and kidney

This treatment led to serum concentrations ranging from 0.5 mM (day 7) to 1.34 mM (day 28) and renal insufficiency highlighted by an increase of blood creatinine and urea levels and a decrease of urea excretion. – Nciri et al., 2011

Creatinine is waste matter from muscles that are excreted from the body through urine (American Kidney Fund, 2022). A healthy liver will ensure a sufficient amount of creatinine is excreted out of the body to ensure a healthy level of blood creatinine (American Kidney Fund, 2022). An increase in blood creatinine indicates that the kidney is no longer functioning healthily. 

Urea on the other hand is a chemical waste product and an important circulating source of nitrogen compounds that remove waste products from the bloodstream (Weiner et al., 2015). Urea is produced in the liver before being transported to the kidney where it is filtered to remove waste products from the body (Mayo Clinic, 2021). It is essential to the regulatory function of the kidney (Weiner et al., 2015). A decrease in urea excretion will result in a reduction of chemical waste removed from the body. 

2. Damage to tissues

Lithium treatment was found to trigger an oxidative stress both in kidney and liver, leading to an increase of lipid peroxidation level (TBARS) and of superoxide dismutase and catalase activities.- Nciri et al., 2011

Oxidative stress occurs when there is a disproportion between antioxidant activity and free radical activity (Dix, 2018). Prolonged/severe oxidative stress can damage renal tissue (HealthMatters.io, n.d.), the connective tissue that surrounds and supports the kidney (Gyurászová et al., 2020; National Cancer Institute, n.d.). Renal tissue will lead to kidney failure and related diseases which will be explored more in the next blog. 

 

Reference List

American Kidney Fund. (2022, January 5). Serum creatinine test. https://www.kidneyfund.org/all-about-kidneys/tests/serum-creatinine-test 

Dix, R. M. N. (2018, September 29). Everything You Should Know About Oxidative Stress. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/oxidative-stress 

Gyurászová, M., Gurecká, R., Bábíčková, J., & Tóthová, U. (2020). Oxidative Stress in the Pathophysiology of Kidney Disease: Implications for Noninvasive Monitoring and Identification of Biomarkers. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2020, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/5478708 

HealthMatters.io. (n.d.). Lipid Peroxides (Genova) | Healthmatters.io. https://healthmatters.io/understand-blood-test-results/lipid-peroxides-genova 

Magazine, S. (2019, February 27). The History of the Lab Rat Is Full of Scientific Triumphs and Ethical Quandaries. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/history-lab-rat-scientific-triumphs-ethical-quandaries-180971533/ 

Mayo Clinic. (2021, August 19). Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test – Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/blood-urea-nitrogen/about/pac-20384821 

National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). Kidneys | SEER Training. https://training.seer.cancer.gov/anatomy/urinary/components/kidney.html 

Nciri, R., Allagui, M. S., Bourogaa, E., Saoudi, M., Murat, J. C., Croute, F., & Elfeki, A. (2011). Lipid peroxidation, antioxidant activities and stress protein (HSP72/73, GRP94) expression in kidney and liver of rats under lithium treatment. Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry, 68(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13105-011-0113-3 

Weiner, I. D., Mitch, W. E., & Sands, J. M. (2015). Urea and Ammonia Metabolism and the Control of Renal Nitrogen Excretion. Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 10(8), 1444–1458. https://doi.org/10.2215/cjn.10311013 

Environmental pollution, Impact on Plants, Lithium Pollution, Pollution

Impacts of Lithium Pollution on Plants

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Although plants naturally take up Li even in uncontaminated soils (Bolan et al., 2021), excess intake is harmful to plants. Li concentration in soil naturally is extremely low, and small amounts of Li can improve and benefit the growth of organisms (Chow, 2022). However, the concentration of Li in soil has increased drastically along with the exponential growth in demand for renewable energy and the lack of regulations for the disposal of Li products (Bolan et al., 2021; Hayyat et al., 2021) (Figure 1). Furthermore, as plants absorb this Li, it enters the food chain when humans consume contaminated edible crops (Hayyat et al., 2021). 

Figure 1: (Bolan et al., 2021)

While Li is toxic to all plants at high concentrations (Hayyat et al., 2021), different Li sources have varying impacts on plants and different plants react to Li differently (Shakoor et al., 2022). By and large, plants in soil with a lower pH absorb more Li (Hayyat et al., 2021). The three main physiological parameters that are studied and affected by Li concentrations are germination, root biomass and shoot biomass (Shakoor et al., 2022). Shakoor et al. (2022) studied four main sources of Li namely LiNO3, Li2SO4, LiOH and LiCl and generally, an increased concentration of Li reduces the germination, root biomass and shoot biomass of plants with some exceptions such as soybean when LiOH is the Li source (Shakoor et al., 2022). Among the four sources, Li uptake is highest with LiCl (Figure 2). 

Figure 2: (Shakoor et al., 2022)

Furthermore, Shakoor et al. (2022) observed a decrease in chlorophyll content as Li concentrations increased. Chlorophyll a, the primary photosynthetic pigment experienced a higher fall in percentage compared to chlorophyll b (Shakoor et al., 2022). 

Chlorophyll a and b decreased by 17% and 5% at <50 ppm 234 concentration with exposure at ≥50 ppm concentrations declined chlorophyll a and b by 34% and 235 10% respectively. – Shakoor et al. (2022)

Compared to most elements, Li is very mobile and can easily travel through soil and within the plant (Hayyat et al., 2021; Shakoor et al., 2022). Therefore, the part of the plant where Li is mainly accumulated in varies between plants and the exogenous level of Li (Shakoor et al., 2022).  

Besides limiting crop development, Hayyat et al. (2021) also found that an increase in Li concentrations in soil reduced other essential nutrients such as Na, N and K that are crucial to the growth of plants. Li also increased the average pH of the soil which will threaten the survival of plants that grow primarily in soils with low pH (Hayyat et al., 2021). With the potential to threaten the survival of plant species and disrupt food supply, Li pollution must not be taken lightly just because its effects are yet to be observed on a global scale.  

 

Reference List

Bolan, N., Hoang, S. A., Tanveer, M., Wang, L., Bolan, S., Sooriyakumar, P., Robinson, B., Wijesekara, H., Wijesooriya, M., Keerthanan, S., Vithanage, M., Markert, B., Fränzle, S., Wünschmann, S., Sarkar, B., Vinu, A., Kirkham, M., Siddique, K. H., & Rinklebe, J. (2021). From mine to mind and mobiles – Lithium contamination and its risk management. Environmental Pollution, 290, 118067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118067 

Chow, A. T. (2022). Proactive approach to minimize lithium pollution. Journal of Environmental Quality, 51(5), 872–876. https://doi.org/10.1002/jeq2.20405 

Hayyat, M. U., Nawaz, R., Siddiq, Z., Shakoor, M. B., Mushtaq, M., Ahmad, S. R., Ali, S., Hussain, A., Irshad, M. A., Alsahli, A. A., & Alyemeni, M. N. (2021). Investigation of Lithium Application and Effect of Organic Matter on Soil Health. Sustainability, 13(4), 1705. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041705 

Martin, L. (2019, June 10). What Are the Roles of Chlorophyll A & B? Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/what-are-the-roles-of-chlorophyll-a-b-12526386.html 

Shakoor, N., Adeel, M., Azeem, I., Ahmad, M. A., Zain, M., Abbas, A., Zhou, P., Li, Y., Ming, X., & Rui, Y. (2022). Responses of Agricultural plants to Lithium pollution: Trends, Meta-Analysis, and Perspectives. BioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.05.07.491047

Environmental pollution, Impact on Marine Life, Lithium Pollution, Pollution

Impacts of Lithium Pollution on Marine Life

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The ever-growing demand for lithium, Li, globally along with incorrect disposal and lack of standardised recycling process in the industry has resulted in Li pollution (Rodríguez et al., 2022). Water bodies are one of the most common places Li end up in through wastewater runoff (Kiyomoto et al., 2010). Being the lightest metal, the concentration of Li in the surface water naturally is very low and hence unnoticed. However, with the increase in the concentration of Li in the water bodies together with climate change, its impact on marine life can no longer be ignored. 

Studies on the impact of Li on aquatic life have found that different concentrations of Li affect marine life both physiologically and biochemically (Rodríguez et al., 2022). 

1. Sea urchins: Li affects the embryogenesis of sea urchins resulting in malformations (Ruocco et al., 2016, Rodríguez et al., 2022). Skeletogenic cell formation and arrangement are delayed and interrupted (Figure 1) and this percentage of abnormal embryos also increased with the concentration of LiCl (Ruocco et al., 2016) (Figure 2). 

Figure 1: (Rodríguez et al., 2022)

Figure 2: (Ruocco et al., 2016)

2. Mussels: An increase in the concentration of Li decreases the metabolism of mussels (Viana et al., 2020). Furthermore, prolonged exposure to high concentrations of Li induces neurotoxic effects (Viana et al., 2020), disturbing neurons critical to the nervous system (Figure 3).  

Figure 3: (Viana et al., 2020)

3. Zebrafish: Similarly, exposure to Li impacts the embryo development of Zebrafish hindering normal development and anatomy formation (Siebel et al., 2014) (Figure 4). 

Figure 4: (Cebra-Thomas, 2004)

The impact of Li on marine life is likely to further exacerbate as a result of climate change (Rodríguez et al., 2022). The temperature rise of oceans raises the body temperature of ectothermic organisms which makes up the majority of marine fishes. The rise in body temperature changes the biochemical and metabolic rates of organisms (Rodríguez et al., 2022). As much marine life is already living near its physiological limits, they are likely unable to defend against the effects of Li and other pollutants as the temperature continues to rise (Rodríguez et al., 2022). Furthermore, Rodríguez et al. (2022) point out that warmer oceans increase oxidative stress as more reactive oxygen species (ROS) can now form in cells, hence leading to organisms becoming more sensitive towards pollutants.  

Coupled with global warming, the increasing concentration of Li in oceans will significantly threaten the survival of marine life. Therefore, proper disposal of lithium-ion batteries and recycling facilities are necessary to reduce the amount of Li entering water bodies and this requires continuous effort and commitment from all stakeholders involved. 

 

Reference List

Betteridge, D. J. (2000). What is oxidative stress? Metabolism, 49(2), 3–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0026-0495(00)80077-3 

Cebra-Thomas. (2004). Effect of lithium on fish development. https://www.swarthmore.edu/NatSci/sgilber1/DB_lab/Fish/Lithium05.html 

Kiyomoto, M., Morinaga, S., & Ooi, N. (2010). Distinct embryotoxic effects of lithium appeared in a new assessment model of the sea urchin: the whole embryo assay and the blastomere culture assay. Ecotoxicology, 19(3), 563–570. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-009-0452-9 

Marín Rodríguez, B., Coppola, F., Conradi, M., & Freitas, R. (2022). The impact of temperature on lithium toxicity in the gastropod Tritia neritea. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(43), 64745–64755. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20258-2 

National Cancer Institute. (n.d.). NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/reactive-oxygen-species 

Ruocco, N., Costantini, M., & Santella, L. (2016). New insights into negative effects of lithium on sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus embryos. Scientific Reports, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32157 

Siebel, A. M., Vianna, M. R., & Bonan, C. D. (2014). Pharmacological and Toxicological Effects of Lithium in Zebrafish. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 5(6), 468–476. https://doi.org/10.1021/cn500046h 

Viana, T., Ferreira, N., Henriques, B., Leite, C., De Marchi, L., Amaral, J., Freitas, R., & Pereira, E. (2020). How safe are the new green energy resources for marine wildlife? The case of lithium. Environmental Pollution, 267, 115458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115458