Lithium | Lithium-ion battery a clean future?

Despite having discussed all the environmental and social impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), we cannot ignore the fact that the demand for LIBs will continue to rise due to their importance in the clean energy sector. To reduce pollution in a trend that cannot be reversed, many would think of the 3Rs, reduce, reuse and recycle. However, as briefly mentioned in the first few blogs, implementing the 3Rs have its own set of problems. As the demand for LIBs is expected to grow exponentially, reducing the use of LIBs is not very feasible now. Hence, this blog will mainly explore the challenges related to reusing and recycling LIBs.

Reusing LIBs:

Reusing refurbished or repurposed LIBs is not a new practice. LIBs have long been reused for less demanding purposes at the end of their first end-of-life (Beaudet et al., 2020). This is because most batteries will still have a charge capacity of up to 80% at their first end of life (Beaudet et al., 2020).Through reusing these LIBs, demand for new LIBs which are much more polluting due to pollution related to production decreases.

However, the decreasing production cost of LIBs especially in recent years has made reusing LIBs increasingly less economically viable (Beaudet et al., 2020; Ziegler et al., 2021; Mauler et al., 2021). According to Ziegler et al. (2021), LIB technology has decreased by up to 97% since they were first commercially used 30 years ago. This exponential decrease in the cost of LIBs is closely tied to the emergence of Chinese LIB producers (Figure 1) (Wakabayashi & Fu, 2022). Along with the stagnation of the high restoration cost of LIBs, it is becoming increasingly attractive for manufacturers to choose new LIBs rather than refurbish old ones.

Figure 1: Decrease in LIB technology over the years (Mauler et al., 2021)

Recycling LIBs:

The recycling process of LIBs remains tedious due to the cumbersome collection and recycling process (Spector, 2022; Beaudet et al., 2020). Although governments such as the Chinese government have encouraged manufacturers to choose recycled materials for manufacturing (Wei et al., 2022), the success of these efforts is put into question. It is costly, time-consuming and troublesome for manufacturers to collect the LIBs back for disassembling and recycling (Spector, 2022; Beaudet et al., 2020). LIBs that are exported overseas will need to be shipped back to manufacturers if manufacturers do not have factories overseas which are more often than not the case.

What about engaging a recycling firm?

While engaging a third part recycling firm may sound feasible, it is often difficult for manufacturers and recycling firms to reach an agreement due to a variety of reasons. Due to intellectual property rights and industrial secrets, manufacturers are often unwilling to share the chemical formulas of batteries with third-party recycling firms making the safe discharging of batteries an extremely difficult one (Sachan et al., 2020). Disassembling a battery without discharging often leads to explosions and fires making LIB recycling facilities particularly expensive to protect the safety of workers and ensure a safe disassembling process.

Reference List

Beaudet, A., Larouche, F., Amouzegar, K., Bouchard, P., & Zaghib, K. (2020). Key Challenges and Opportunities for Recycling Electric Vehicle Battery Materials. Sustainability, 12(14), 5837. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145837

Mauler, L., Duffner, F., Zeier, W. G., & Leker, J. (2021). Battery cost forecasting: a review of methods and results with an outlook to 2050. Energy and Environmental Science, 14(9), 4712–4739. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee01530c

Sachan, S., Deb, S., & Singh, S. N. (2020). Different charging infrastructures along with smart charging strategies for electric vehicles. Sustainable Cities and Society, 60, 102238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102238

Spector, J. (2022, June 13). EV battery recycling is costly. These 5 startups could change that. Canary Media. https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/electric-vehicles/ev-battery-recycling-is-costly-these-five-startups-could-change-that

Wakabayashi, D., & Fu, C. (2022, September 27). For China’s Auto Market, Electric Isn’t the Future. It’s the Present. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/26/business/china-electric-vehicles.html

Wei, L., Wang, C., & Li, Y. (2022). Governance strategies for end-of-life electric vehicle battery recycling in China: A tripartite evolutionary game analysis. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1071688

Ziegler, M. S., Song, J., & Trancik, J. E. (2021). Determinants of lithium-ion battery technology cost decline. Energy and Environmental Science, 14(12), 6074–6098. https://doi.org/10.1039/d1ee01313k

Having discussed the negative impact Li pollution has on biodiversity, I would like to explore the benefits natural Li, Li in small amounts can have for biodiversity in this blog. Like most naturally occurring things (e.g. greenhouse effect), Li plays an important role in the healthy growth and development of humans and animals in small amounts. Li occurs naturally in small amounts in groundwater and soil (Memon et al., 2020). Although only found in small concentrations averaging between 3.8 and 46.3 μg/L (0.0005–0.0067 mmol/L) (Araya et al., 2022), Li positively impacts the health of people.

Figure 1

The benefits of naturally occurring Li include:

1. Reduces rates of suicide

Drinking water with naturally occurring Li has been found to improve the mental health of people (Memon et al., 2020). Over the years, many studies have been conducted to find the relationship between different concentrations of Li and suicide rates (Memon et al., 2020; Araya et al., 2022). Although little correlation has been found in concentrations below 30.7 μg/L (0.0044 mmol/L) in drinking water, a much stronger correlation was found between Li and suicide rate at a higher concentration from 32.9 μg/L (0.0047 mmol/L) (Araya et al., 2022). Generally, among the areas studied, areas with a higher natural concentration of Li also recorded lower rates of suicide (Forlenza et al., 2012) (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Reduce suicide levels with an increase in Li levels (Ohgami et al., 2009)

2. Mood stabilising effects

Apart from reducing rates of suicide, Li have mood stabilisation effects, independent of its anti-suicidal effect (Memon et al., 2020). This is also why despite having negative health impacts when taken in at above natural concentrations, Li continues to be used in bipolar treatment and medicine to stabilise the mood swings of patients (Forlenza et al., 2012).

3. Neuroprotective effects

Additionally, Li can improve a person’s cognitive function (Neves et al., 2020). Despite only being present naturally, in small amounts, Kessing et al. (2017) found that water with higher concentrations of Li significantly reduced dementia in Denmark. However, when used in the treatment of neurological diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease often requires a higher than the natural concentration of Li of up to 300 µg/day (Neves et al., 2020).

4. Reduces inflammation

Finally, Li is also able to reduce inflammation thanks to its ability to inhibit glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) (Beurel & Jope, 2014).

GSK3 promotes the production of inflammatory molecules and cell migration, which together make GSK3 a powerful regulator of inflammation. – Jope et al., 2007

While naturally occurring Li benefits humans, the rapid increase in Li pollution can result in Li concentration soaring exponentially in coming years if few related regulations and policies are passed and enforced. The impacts of Li in nature at a much higher concentration will no longer be just beneficial and adverse health impacts discussed in previous blogs will arise, further straining the global health system.

Reference List

Araya, P. E., Martínez, C., & Barros, J. (2022). Lithium in Drinking Water as a Public Policy for Suicide Prevention: Relevance and Considerations. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.805774

Beurel, E., & Jope, R. S. (2014). Inflammation and lithium: clues to mechanisms contributing to suicide-linked traits. Translational Psychiatry, 4(12), e488. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2014.129

Forlenza, O. V., De Paula, V. S., Machado-Vieira, R., Diniz, B. S., & Gattaz, W. F. (2012). Does Lithium Prevent Alzheimerʼs Disease? Drugs & Aging, 29(5), 335–342. https://doi.org/10.2165/11599180-000000000-00000

Jope, R. S., Yuskaitis, C. J., & Beurel, E. (2007). Glycogen Synthase Kinase-3 (GSK3): Inflammation, Diseases, and Therapeutics. Neurochemical Research, 32(4–5), 577–595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11064-006-9128-5

Kessing, L. V., Gerds, T. A., Knudsen, N. N., Jørgensen, L., Kristiansen, S., Voutchkova, D. D., Ernstsen, V., Hansen, B., Andersen, P. K., & Ersbøll, A. K. (2017). Association of Lithium in Drinking Water With the Incidence of Dementia. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(10), 1005. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2362

Memon, A., Rogers, I., Fitzsimmons, S. M. D. D., Carter, B., Strawbridge, R., Hidalgo-Mazzei, D., & Young, A. H. (2020). Association between naturally occurring lithium in drinking water and suicide rates: systematic review and meta-analysis of ecological studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 217(6), 667–678. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2020.128

Neves, M. G. P. M. S., Marques, J. C., & Eggenkamp, H. G. (2020). Lithium in Portuguese Bottled Natural Mineral Waters—Potential for Health Benefits? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), 8369. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228369

Ohgami, H., Terao, T., Shiotsuki, I., Ishii, N., & Iwata, N. (2009). Lithium levels in drinking water and risk of suicide. British Journal of Psychiatry, 194(5), 464–465. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.108.055798

Lithium-ion battery a clean future?

Category Archives: Lithium

Problems associated with recycling of LIBs

Benefits of naturally occurring Lithium in water