Author: glendagoh

Molecular Gastronomy — Future of Food

On chapter 5 of this module, we dived into the topic of Molecular Gastronomy, and discussed about the future of food.

Molecular Gastronomy is the study of the physical and chemical transformations of ingredients that occur in cooking. From my understanding, it’s food experimentation– trying out new techniques, changing up ingredient proportions, to create a desirable end product, all while keeping in mind the scientific theories behind the behaviours of the ingredients.

We learned about emulsions, gels and foams, and also a little about spherification, which was pretty interesting! Spherification reminded me of those Japanese “Popin’ Cookin” sets (see below), where spheres of salmon roe can be made by squeezing the contents of the dropper into a solution. From the ingredients list of this sushi set (incl. sodium alginate & calcium carbonate), I’ve realised that I’ve performed spherification myself, albeit unknowingly haha! Prior to learning about spherification, I always thought the making of the roe was so cool and probably some amazing Japanese magic, but never questioned the science behind it. Now, I realised that the white powder I dissolved into a solution was actually calcium carbonate and the dropper of gel-ish fish roe was actually a flavoured liquid containing sodium alginate. The dropping of the alginated liquid into the calcium carbonate solution gave little spheres, and the reason these “fish roe” pop in our mouths is that the calcium solution reacts with the outer layer of the spheres to form a thin and flexible skin, which is what bursts upon pressure. Fun!

For the workshop, I was bummed to learn that the hands-on workshop was cancelled, but it made full sense to cancel it given the situation now. Nonetheless, we had a fruitful tutorial session in place of the workshop, where we discussed about the readings from the topic of Future of Food.

We used a jigsaw approach to the discussion. Each of us in our groups chose and article to read, and during the session we first split up into our “expert groups” to discuss with other classmates about the article we have read, sharing and consolidating what we have learned during our independent reading. After which we came back together to our groups where we exchanged our summaries of our individual articles.

I first read the Recent Development in 3D food printing. It was pretty interesting and it made me curious about how our food may change in the years to come. The reading addressed the applications of 3D food printing– allow for mass production of food in times of shortage; nutrition control; novel textures etc. The customisabilty of 3D printing allows for the food to be tailor made to one’s needs, as well as create more appealing/ exciting food textures and structures. The reading also mentioned the possibility of using alternative protein sources, such as that of insects. 3D printing can transform unappealing, “disgusting” insect proteins into more acceptable forms. Personally, I would agree that I probably would not willing eat a bunch of ants for their protein, but if I was presented a burger with insect protein hidden in it, I may give it a try. On the other hand, we discussed about the psychological barrier about eating 3D printed food — people may not accept “machine printed” food well as it may seem unnatural. We also talked about the potential high-costs of this technology, and questioned the sustainability of this method of food production. However, if successful, this technology may be more environmentally friendly and increase food security.

The reading on “The Meat of Affliction” talked about the nutritional value of insects, and how there’s a need to change the appearance of these foods to make it more acceptable (3D printing?). The reading also addressed the concerned of health hazards around the rearing of insects, which made me think that growing and serving insects as food may not be the best choice for the future, given its unappealing nature.

Then we discussed about “Planting Seeds for the future of food”. With an increase in demand for food, and more nutritious food, it is important to rethink our approach to agriculture for a more sustainable future. The reading brought in ideas of precision farming and the importance of managing soil health and nutrition. As individuals, we can support small businesses and support new methods of agriculture, such as vertical planting, community planting and hydro-aeroponics.

Finally on the reading “Climate Change and Food Security”. We discussed that there needs to be an increase in awareness of food insecurity and food inequality, and that more people can do their part to reduce climate change. More education on reducing food wastage is needed, particularly in developed countries. There should also be more conversation around healthy eating for climate change, cutting down on meat like beef as they cattle rearing has significant impact on the environment. We also talked about the possibility of embracing lab-grown meat, as it is a greener alternative to traditional meat sources but the costs of lab grown food must decrease before it can be more common and acceptable. My siew mai shouldn’t cost more than $0.80, haha! Along the lines of the previous reading, we discussed about improving our urban food systems to lower reliance on food imports and increase food security.

To conclude, the future of food seems to lean towards making use of technology to improve our food both in terms of quantity and quality. In my opinion, change could be slow, but we must be open towards new ideas such as 3D food printing and lab grown meat to reduce the impact on the environment.

Chocolate Mousse and Sorbet Workshop

On 6 March, we had an introduction to molecular gastronomy by Dr Linda Sellou. We went through the basic ideas behind chocolate and ice cream, and even tried our hand at making Chocolate Chantilly and Ribena Sorbet!

Ah– Chocolate. A dessert food that has one of the richest and most complex flavours of all. From McGee’s book, the flavours we taste from chocolate comes from the following: cacao bean (astringency and bitterness from phenolic compounds and theobromine); fermented pulp (fruit, wine, sherry and vinegar flavours from acids, esters, etc.); self-digested bean (almond, dairy and flowery notes from benzaldehyde, diacetyl and others); roasting and browning reactions (nutty, roasted, sweet notes); added sugar and vanilla (sweetness and warmth); added milk solids (caramel and butterscotch notes).

The kinds of chocolates vary widely, and we most commonly see milk and dark chocolate, with dark chocolate being my preferred choice! However, contrary to my preference, milk chocolate is the most popular form of chocolate. Milk solids and a large proportion of sugar make up most of milk chocolate, while cocoa solids and cocoa butter make up the rest. The low cocoa solids and high sugar content contribute to the sweetness of the milk chocolate. This is as opposed to dark chocolate, where its content is just cocoa solids, cocoa butter, significantly less sugar, and zero milk solids. The higher proportion of cocoa butter in chocolate also means it has a snappier texture than milk chocolate, which is comparatively much softer. Since dark chocolate contains a higher proportion of cocoa solids, the chocolate flavour is more intense, and is more bitter and astringent.

For the Chocolate Chantilly we made, we used a 72% cocoa chocolate, meaning it is 72% by weight cocoa butter and cocoa solids, and about 28% sugar.

We first broke up 100g of the chocolate into smaller pieces so that we could melt the chocolate more easily, then added it to a metal bowl. After which we poured in 85 mL of hot water, and proceeded to stir and mix to melt the chocolate.

Initially, I thought it was weird that we were told to add water to chocolate. I always imagined chocolate to separate from water because of the cocoa butter content, and that one should use milk to achieve a creamy chocolate mixture. On first look, the chocolate and water didn’t look like they belonged together. It was a clumpy mess and seemingly immiscible. However, with some patience and constant use of the spoon to further break down the chocolate pieces, we managed to get a smooth, glossy chocolate cream for the next step.

We transferred the bowl from the table to an ice-bath, where our aggressive whisking begun. Flashback Friday to Japanese Souffle Pancakes, haha!

As we whisked, we observed that the chocolate mixture started to become more viscous as it cooled down. Whisking the chocolate also incorporated air into the mixture, turning the mixture into a foam– which is gas dispersed in liquid. We were at first unsure of when to stop the whisking, but we observed and compared it with online pictures of mousse and decided that we achieved the right consistency.

Mmm! It was smooth, rich, and left us craving for more! So we used the rest of the chocolate bar to make a second batch of mousse, but that wasn’t as smooth sailing as our first attempt. Our second batch was slightly overmixed, so our mousse turned out slightly thick and grainy. As an attempt to troubleshoot, we added a little more hot water to the mixture and mixed. It loosened up and became smooth again, but when we whisked it over the ice-bath, the mixture did not thicken up as before despite many minutes of whisking. Upon reflection, I think we added too much water to the mix. Although the chocolate did become smooth, the water we added could be too much, making it difficult for the chocolate to stiffen effectively due to a lower melting point. Reading up on some information online, I learned that the best way to fix an overmixed mixture is to remelt the chocolate, then repeat the whisking process, instead of adding hot water. For our case, maybe we could’ve placed the bowl over a hot water bath as an easy fix. Also, we should’ve stopped whisking just before our desired consistency as the chocolate will thicken slightly upon sitting. Also, I learned that milk chocolates are not recommended for making this chocolate chantilly as its lower cacao content will give a runny soup, instead of a smooth mousse. However the versatility of this recipe allows for further experimentation, such as refrigerating the chantilly after it’s ready for its use in cake fillings, or even changing up the water to orange juice to make an orange chocolate mousse. I’ll definitely keep these changes in mind when making more chantilly at home!

Next, we made an easy Ribena Sorbet! So a difference between a sorbet and ice cream is this– sorbets are just fruit and sugar with no added dairy, while ice cream generally contains at least 10% milkfat, making ice creams creamy and sorbets not. But what makes sorbets smooth, nonetheless? Sorbets are smooth due to the rapid freezing process, as in our experiment where the ribena was quickly frozen using food grade dry ice.

The rate of freezing greatly affects the ice crystal size formed. The greater the rate, the smaller (more desired) the ice crystals formed. As such, some companies also use liquid nitrogen to achieve this rapid cooling process. Interestingly, sugar also plays a part in getting small ice crystals. Apart from providing sweetness, sugar also lowers the freezing point of the sorbet mixture, which is important as it reduces the risk of forming large ice crystals which will make sorbets turn out more like ice blended drinks instead.

The method of adding dry ice (or solid CO2 at -78.5 degrees C) not only makes the sorbet-making process a quick and easy one, but also adds texture to the end product. The dry ice sublimes, turning from solid to gas during the mixing process. This incorporates carbon dioxide gas into the mixture, which is no wonder why the sorbet was slightly fizzy when I tasted it! Also, the carbon dioxide gas in the sorbet reacts with the saliva on the surface of our tongues to give carbonic acid, which contributes to a slight tang of the sorbet.

Yet another interesting workshop to have amidst the week of mid-term examinations! It was both fun and enriching to learn more about the two tasty desserts, and I took home with me some good tips about mousse and ice cream making at home. I never knew that these desserts could be made with such simple steps, and it truly amazed me seeing the science at work in this workshop.

Pancake Workshop

Two Fridays ago, we ended off the first half of the semester with a fun, and slightly messy pancake workshop!

Before I dive into my experience of making the pancakes, I will start off with a brief summary of what I have learnt for the topic of baking.

It’s interesting how different combinations of raw ingredients will give totally distinct types of baked goods! The variety of textures of baked goods are attributed to the structures of their doughs and batters, with the basic components being water, gluten proteins of the flour, as well as starch granules of the flour. Depending on the water to flour ratio, we name the flour mixture a dough or a batter, with the latter having a higher water to flour ratio than the former (2-4 times more water). In doughs, the water is bound to the gluten proteins and the surfaces of the starch granules while in batters, most of the water exists as a free liquid, with the gluten proteins and starch granules dispersed in it.

The reason for the drastic change in texture after baking/cooking a dough or batter is because the structure of the flour mixture is temporary. During the cooking process, the starch granules absorb water and swell to transform the liquid or semi-solid batter/dough into a permanent solid structure that is our cakes and bread. The gluten proteins also contribute to the structure of our baked goods by providing a cohesiveness to prevent the food from being crumbly. Overdeveloped gluten however, makes our end product more elastic and chewy. This was interesting knowledge to me, as I did not previously understand why we can’t keep mixing our batters/doughs to our hearts content. I remember baking bread once, and while I baked the first batch of bread, I was bored and started kneading a second batch a lot. The two batches of bread turned out to be very different, with the second batch being so incredibly chewy that it reminded me more of rubber than bread. The first batch was less chewy, but not tasty nonetheless.. I’m starting to doubt it may not just be the kneading that went wrong.. Maybe that’s why I haven’t baked bread in a long while haha!

I also learned that the leavening agents used for different baked goods are different. I never wondered why pancake recipes never called for yeast until I read more about it in the McGee’s book. Apparently, fluid batters (such as in pancakes) cannot retain much of the carbon dioxide that is evolved slowly from yeast. As such, chemical leavening agents such as baking powder/ soda are used in place of yeast. Alternatively, air can also be introduced mechanically, beating in air into the batter or its components (such as egg whites). A combination of mechanical and chemical leavening can also be used, which was the method used in making Japanese Souffle pancakes! (we tried)

Now for the fun part– the actual making of pancakes!

Each group randomly chose the type of pancake they would be making, i.e. Western Pancakes and Japanese Souffle Pancakes. Initially, our group was given Western Pancakes. However we wanted to challenge ourselves, so we exchanged with the neighbouring group to make the Japanese Souffle Pancakes instead. I would think that our decision made the cooking process a much more eventful one!

Our group collected the following ingredients:

Batter:

1. 3 tbs all-purpose flour
2. 1/3 tsp baking powder
3. Pinch of salt
4. 1 tsp granulated sugar
5. 1 egg yolk
6. 2 tbs whole milk
7. 1 tbs neutral oil
8. 1/4 tsp vanilla extract
9. Maple syrup

Meringue:

1. 2 egg whites
2. 1 heaping tbs sugar

We got to work by first whisking the wet ingredients, starting with the egg yolk and 5g of sugar (* sugar is a wet ingredient!) Then we added the flour and baking powder to the mixture, making sure to whisk adequately well to ensure the formation of some gluten. We then added a pinch of salt and some vanilla extract for flavour. Reading more about the purpose of salt, I realised that its function is not simply just for a more balanced flavour. Salt actually tightens the gluten network of the batter, which is helpful for improving the volume of the final product.

We then started the (slightly tiring) task of whisking the egg whites till stiff peaks. Although we did not do it this time, but I read that it’s wise to use very cold (even half-frozen!) egg whites to make meringues. This is because it makes for a smooth meringue that has small and strong air bubbles, increasing the fluffiness of the pancake. Maybe I will give that a shot the next time. Sugar was added as we whisked, which aids in stabilising the structure of the meringue.

After we did the classic bowl-over-the-head test for our meringue and passed, we combined the base and the meringue carefully, making sure we did not mix the batter vigorously and flatten our hard work.

We proceeded to cook our pancakes!

Turning on the hotplate at low heat, we preheated the pan, then added a scoop of batter when the pan was ready. The lid was put on the pan and the waiting game begun. This was a moist heat cooking method, trapping the moisture in the pan with the lid. This is a good approach as it introduces heat very gently, which was important for the delicate pancakes. Since souffle pancakes are thicker than traditional ones, we want to make sure that the inside of the pancake is cooked adequately while making sure that the tops and bottoms were not burnt.

The cooking process was slow, but we figured that the hotplate was not very appropriate for cooking the pancakes. However, online sources did say that the pancakes will cook best low and slow, so maybe we were just not patient enough. After a long wait, we managed to cook our first Japanese Souffle Pancake! It was pretty good if I do say so myself, for a first attempt at least xD

We also noticed that our remaining batter changed from a pale yellow to a darker yellow, and I think that was because the air in the egg whites were escaping as we waited for the first pancake to cook. Our second pancake was.. take a look for yourself:

.. yep. I think the caption explains it. We poured all the remaining batter (it was obviously too much) and we were a little to anxious to flip! Nonetheless, the end product was not too bad taste wise!

If I were to make these pancakes again, I would definitely opt for a bigger pan and a more stable heat source (or use an electric griddle altogether), to better aid the flipping and cooking process.

As a whole, the topic of baking was an interesting one. I have always found baking to be almost magic, but the readings and videos gave me a better idea of the science behind baking. I realised that there are so many little steps that I used to blindly follow without questioning its purpose (e.g. adding salt), so I would definitely be more aware of those in the future!

Fermentation Workshop

Last week, we had DJ Tan from Starter Culture to tell us more about Fermentation and more specifically, Kombucha Fermentation!

Firstly, DJ explained that fermentation is a biological process in which microorganisms transforms raw materials into flavours. Such microorganisms include bacteria and yeasts. For example, certain yogurt drinks like Yakult contain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) which are facultative anaerobes. Facultative anaerobes are organisms that can produce ATP in the presence of oxygen through aerobic respiration, and in the absence of oxygen, can switch to fermentation/ anaerobic respiration. In contrast, kombucha contains acetic acid bacteria (AAB), which are obligate aerobes that are unable to survive in the presence of oxygen.

Kombucha is a fermented tea drink. It uses a mixed-culture as its base — “symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeasts” or “SCOBY”. The products of the culture include alcohol and acetic acid from yeast and AAB respectively. DJ also explained that the typical alcohol content of kombucha is low (~0.5%), due to the presence of AAB, which converts the produced ethanol to acetic acid. The fermentation of kombucha is a two-stage process, from an aerobic stage to an anaerobic stage.

There are various factors affecting fermentation, and can be classified into intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Some intrinsic factors include acidity (pH– most yeasts prefer neutral or slightly acidic pH of 5-6) and nutrient content (carbon and nitrogen sources) while some extrinsic factors include temperature and gaseous exchange. It was interesting to learn that a 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature doubles the rate of fermentation, explaining why flavour development of kombucha the fridge will be slower than that in room temperature. There is also differences between fermentation and spoilage. DJ defined fermentation as deliberate, desired, innocuous and palatable, while spoilage is uncontrolled, unwanted, unsafe and unpleasant. This reminded me of the YouTube Channel Bon Appetit, where they have a show called “It’s Alive” by Brad Leone. Brad mentioned that fermentation is essentially controlled rot, and I found it to be an interesting way of describing what fermentation is.

It then came to the exciting hands-on part of the workshop, where we learn about the practical aspects of kombucha-making, and get to experience it ourselves. To make kombucha, 4 simple ingredients are needed: Tea, sugar, starter culture and water. Firstly, a sweet tea must first be brewed and cooled to room temperature. DJ suggested a ratio of 1% tea to 7% sugar for beginners like us, and encouraged us to manipulate this ratio if we were interested to continue making kombucha at home. Then, 10 -20% of starter per weight/volume of total kombucha should be added before fermentation can begin.

We added brewed, cooled sweet tea to the halfway mark of the jar. We were instructed to cover the jar with a breathable material such as a paper towel to encourage the exchange of air, while minimising external microbes and pests from entering.

The picture above was the same jar on the third day of fermentation. As you can see, a layer of off white, spongey substance is formed on the top of the kombucha. This spongey material is known as the cellulose pellicle, which is a result of AAB converting sugars into cellulose. Some may wrongly identify it as mould, hence DJ showed us certain examples of actual mould growth, so that we would be better aware of when the kombucha has become unsafe to drink. He also mentioned that it is both interesting and helpful to understand how mould grows, as it will also allow us to be more conscious of how to avoid mould growth. The jar was to be fermented for 5-7 days, and it can be used as a starter after a week, to make more kombucha.

The bottle on the other hand, contained kombucha in anaerobic secondary fermentation (it’s essentially what we will get after fermenting the jar of kombucha for a week). At the secondary stage, the kombucha is bottled and more sugar and juice is added for flavouring. We added a sugar tablet to the bottle to promote carbonation.

For both containers, DJ mentioned that they are ready to drink at any time, as it all depends on our preference. I tasted both on the first day, and then on the third day, and it was surprising how much changes can occur in three days. Apart from appearance (both formed cellulose pellicle), the tastes and textures of the kombuchas changed greatly. Initially, the kombucha in the jar is essentially sweet tea, but after 3 days it became a tart, slightly fizzy tea. The kombucha in the bottle initially tasted tart, and after 3 days, I got a surprise when I opened the bottle as the gas quickly escaped onto my face! Expectedly, its contents was very fizzy as compared to when it was first given to us. I felt that both containers tasted like apple cider vinegar, with different degrees of acidity and fizzy-ness. It was an interesting flavour and I do understand why it could be an acquired taste for some. In my case, I’ll be honest and say that it’s not really my cup of tea.. Oops!

As a wrap up of the workshop, DJ presented various applications of fermentation in our daily food, such as yogurt, kimchi, fishsauce etc. He mentioned the variability of fermentation, and how fermentation can be done in various creative ways to enhance flavours or even create new flavours in our foods. I will definitely be continuing to observe and taste the changes in my kombucha!

Coffee Theory and Testing Session

We had our first workshop session of DMS1401CM on 16 January! The module kick-started with the coffee workshop hosted by Swee Heng from The Coffee Roaster, who shared his knowledge and enthusiasm for coffee.

Prior to the session, I had limited knowledge of coffee though I do occasionally buy a cup of the “pick-me-up” on early mornings. I am far from an coffee enthusiast, but the session on Thursday did pique my interest in coffee and the science (or some would say art) behind it.

We started with introduction, after which we each took two cups labelled C and E to smell and taste.

As we sipped on the coffee, we wrote down some of the flavours we tasted in each coffee. Some of us said C was sour and nutty, and some said E was sweeter and fruity. In all honesty, I could not initially pick up on any distinct flavours when I first tried the coffees, but with the help of the flavour suggestions and more tasting, I started to identify similar flavours of the individual coffees.

We then proceeded to find out more about the coffee we tasted, and about other types of coffee. Swee Heng shared that both coffees were Arabicas, but from different parts of the world (i.e. Central America and Ethiopia). He then mentioned that the two most common types of coffee beans are Arabica and Robusta, a less common one being Liberica (and Excelsa, according to online sources). The types of coffee beans were something I have never considered, but upon learning about coffee bean types, it made sense as it justified why I had different preference towards a “Starbucks” iced coffee and a “Kopi-peng” from local coffee shops (I could better appreciate the latter).

As mentioned by Swee Heng and Compound Interest‘s Arabica vs Robusta, Arabicas and Robustas are fairly different. From a taste standpoint, Arabicas are more complex, having fruity and even chocolatey flavours while Robustas taste more earthy and burnt rubber. These flavours occur to us as the compounds in the coffee remind us about other foods with the same compounds. From an agricultural standpoint, Arabicas are more delicate and require better pest/disease control, while Robustas, as its name suggests, are more robust and resistant to best. This also leads to the cost difference between the two types, with latter being 4 times(!!) cheaper to produce than the former. The price disparity also explains why Singaporean kopitiams use Robusta coffee beans– the Nanyang coffee culture formed as Singapore imported the cheaper Robusta since the early days. As such, Arabicas are used in more gourmet coffees, while Robustas are used in instant coffees and in local kopitiams.

We were then furnished with the typical Cafe menu, ranging from a one-component espresso to a four-component honey latte. The cafe menu was as complicated as a kopitiam one! Swee Heng suggested that we should try the different coffees to find our preferred one. He then introduced to us the topic of Espresso and Extraction Theory, where we learned more about brew parameters and extraction. The brew ratio determined the flavours of the coffee, as it meant different compounds were extracted. A ristrestto with a 1:1 ratio would be more acidic as acidic compounds are extracted first, while a lungo with a 1:3 ratio would be more bitter since bitter compounds are extracted later. Other parameters include: grind size, brew time, brew temperature, pressure and water hardness. With a good control over these factors, one might be able to brew a perfect cup of coffee for every individual! This also made me think about “kopitiam” coffees– are they as intricate as “cafe” coffees? Even without such theoretical knowledge, with experience and customer feedback, I would think that our kopitiam uncles do also know the factors affecting the tastes of their signature brew. The extraction theory rounded off with Swee Heng sharing with us the features of an under- and over-extracted coffee, and the remedies for those situations.

Overall, the workshop was both interactive and informative, and it made me more aware of the flavours and origins of different types of coffees available. I also feel a greater appreciation of coffee-makers and their coffee as I realise the science and art behind a cup of coffee.

Looking forward to the upcoming fermentation workshop!

The Building Blocks of Food (Chapter 1)

In the first chapter of this module, we learned the science behind our food and what exactly makes up our food from a molecular perspective.

So what makes up a typical zhap chye peng (mixed vegetables rice)? Rice, vegetables and meat. And what exactly are these food made up of? Carbohydrates, proteins, fats/oils and water. These are the four basic molecules that make up all of what we eat in a day.

Water is the simplest of the four basic food molecules. Despite its small size, water is the main component of many of our foods. It is also an important factor affecting the taste and texture of our food. Water molecules are polar molecules that can form hydrogen bonds both within itself and with other polar molecules, giving water the ability to dissolve polar carbohydrates and proteins, changing the behaviour of these molecules. Have you wondered why your pot of water takes so long to boil? That’s due to water’s high specific heat, which is the amount of energy required to raise its temperature by a given amount.

Fats and oils belong to the same family, with the former having a higher melting point than the latter. They are great flavour developers, as their high boiling points (as compared to water) allow for the tasty browning-reaction flavours to develop in your food. Another factor of fats that affects the flavour of our food is smoke point. The smoke point is the temperature at which a fat breaks down into visible gaseous products. One may notice that at the same temperature, different types of oils and fats produce smoke at varying speeds. This is due to the stability of the fat, with more stable fats having higher smoke points.

Carbohydrates in our food can come in the form of simple sugars and complex carbohydrates. Simple sugars, starch and glycogen are energy stores of animals and plants, while pectins and cellulose provide plants with structural support. These carbohydrates have vastly different structures, hence their varying properties and taste. For example, simple sugars like glucose give the sweet taste to our grapes, while complex sugars such as cellulose give rise to the fibrous texture of our vegetables stems.

Lastly, proteins are macromolecules consisting of amino acids as base units. Of the four food molecules, proteins are the trickiest to handle, as they are easily affected by temperature and pH. At low temperatures, proteins are inactive while at high temperatures, the proteins denature and their properties change with denaturation. For example, the reason behind egg whites turning opaque when cooked is due to the denaturation of proteins in the egg white at high heat.

All in all, these food molecules form the base of our food. The varying properties of these molecules determine the taste and texture of the food we eat.